Aboriginal Historty Month 2021
- Thread starter roots69
- Start date
I dont understand why people defend alex?? I guess its no different than these folks that fall and believe in these entertainment stars.. Whatever story that was repeated about these stars over and over to the fans, they believe and will fight and defend that story!!!
You got that right, they stole everything they thought was valuable at the time! Bruh, Im starting to believe our ancestors had these cities around this nation established and these colonist stole everything and put their name on it!! These people didnt come to this country and built this from scratch!! There might be sum of our people that have that much faith in these euros,, but I dont!!
POW"s
How the Rules of War Work
If you want to read the whole agreement, just search Geneva Conventions!!
Prisoners of War
Prisoners are entitled in all circumstances to respect for their persons and their honour. (Geneva III)
First off, prisoners of war are prisoners of the country that captures them; they are not prisoners of the soldier, unit, or commander of the unit that captures them. Also, much along the lines of "innocent until proven guilty," any captured combatant is assumed to be a prisoner of war and must be treated accordingly; if there is any doubt as to the applicability of POW status, the rules regarding prisoners of war must be followed until a proper tribunal is convened to determine whether POW status is applicable on a case-by-case basis. When the United States systematically denied POW status to captured Taliban combatants in the 2001-2002 war in Afghanistan, it was in violation of the third Geneva Convention. In the course of an armed conflict involving parties to the Geneva Convention, captured combatants are POWs until proven otherwise.
Like the sick or wounded, prisoners of war (POWs) are protected under the Hague and Geneva laws from any violence, indignity, or biological experimentation. POWs must receive medical treatment if they need it, and medical staff must be brought in to the POW camp at least once a month to make sure everyone is okay. Unlike the sick or wounded, however, the military hierarchy is observed when it comes to prisoners of war: Officers can't be assigned to the same paid labor as enlisted troops; and while hard labor may be assigned to an enlisted troop as disciplinary action, an officer can't be punished in that manner.
Most of us have seen in movies and on TV the interrogation response of "name, rank and serial number." This stems from the third Geneva Convention, but its purpose is not exactly what it seems. It's true that prisoners of war have to provide their name, rank and serial number (as well as date of birth), but this is not only for identification purposes. It is also to assure that the person be treated "according to his rank or status." If an officer fails to make known that he is an officer, he can't be granted the privileges due an officer.
On the topic of questioning POWs, the interrogation tactics that seem to be common practice in a time of war are all illegal. The third Geneva Convention outlaws everything beyond the simple asking of a question:
No physical or mental torture, nor any other form of coercion, may be inflicted on prisoners of war to secure from them information of any kind whatever. Prisoners of war who refuse to answer may not be threatened, insulted, or exposed to any unpleasant or disadvantageous treatment of any kind.
Confinement is illegal (POWs can't be held in prison cells unless it is for their own protection), but internment is allowed -- they may be kept within certain boundaries. However, their location must be as far from the fighting as possible. Besides being held in a special "camp," prisoners of war are supposed to be granted all of the rights and privileges that their captor grants to its own armed forces, at least in terms of food, water, shelter, clothing, exercise, correspondence, religious practice and other basic human needs. They are supposed to be informed of their exact location -- supplied with their mailing address, in fact -- so that their relatives may send them letters and packages.
Beyond the protection from violence, intimidation and affronts to personal dignity, prisoners of war are supposed to be safeguarded from "public curiosity" (Geneva III). The broadcasting of pictures and video of wounded prisoners of war is an affront to their dignity and an appeal to public curiosity, and as such is prohibited.
Once captured by the enemy, prisoners of war are subject to the laws of the armed force that is holding them. They must act according to the rules and regulations of their captors, and breaking those rules leaves them open to the same trial and punishment as that faced by a member of the detaining military. They are under the control of the detaining power and their detention is legal; as such, their escape is a breach of that law. So if they escape, they can be punished. But only if they are recaptured before they make it make to their own army. If they successfully escape -- if they return to the territory of their own armed forces -- and then are captured once again, they cannot be punished for their previous escape. This same rule of success negating the offense applies to spies who escape their captors: If a spy breaks free and is caught before he makes it "home," he can still be tried as a spy; if he makes it back to his own side and is then recaptured, he is no longer considered a spy who is subject to trial and punishment -- he is considered a prisoner of war, and is therefore protected.
POW STATUS
When taken by the enemy, the following people are classified as prisoners of war:
How the Rules of War Work
If you want to read the whole agreement, just search Geneva Conventions!!
Prisoners of War
Prisoners are entitled in all circumstances to respect for their persons and their honour. (Geneva III)
First off, prisoners of war are prisoners of the country that captures them; they are not prisoners of the soldier, unit, or commander of the unit that captures them. Also, much along the lines of "innocent until proven guilty," any captured combatant is assumed to be a prisoner of war and must be treated accordingly; if there is any doubt as to the applicability of POW status, the rules regarding prisoners of war must be followed until a proper tribunal is convened to determine whether POW status is applicable on a case-by-case basis. When the United States systematically denied POW status to captured Taliban combatants in the 2001-2002 war in Afghanistan, it was in violation of the third Geneva Convention. In the course of an armed conflict involving parties to the Geneva Convention, captured combatants are POWs until proven otherwise.
Like the sick or wounded, prisoners of war (POWs) are protected under the Hague and Geneva laws from any violence, indignity, or biological experimentation. POWs must receive medical treatment if they need it, and medical staff must be brought in to the POW camp at least once a month to make sure everyone is okay. Unlike the sick or wounded, however, the military hierarchy is observed when it comes to prisoners of war: Officers can't be assigned to the same paid labor as enlisted troops; and while hard labor may be assigned to an enlisted troop as disciplinary action, an officer can't be punished in that manner.
Most of us have seen in movies and on TV the interrogation response of "name, rank and serial number." This stems from the third Geneva Convention, but its purpose is not exactly what it seems. It's true that prisoners of war have to provide their name, rank and serial number (as well as date of birth), but this is not only for identification purposes. It is also to assure that the person be treated "according to his rank or status." If an officer fails to make known that he is an officer, he can't be granted the privileges due an officer.
On the topic of questioning POWs, the interrogation tactics that seem to be common practice in a time of war are all illegal. The third Geneva Convention outlaws everything beyond the simple asking of a question:
No physical or mental torture, nor any other form of coercion, may be inflicted on prisoners of war to secure from them information of any kind whatever. Prisoners of war who refuse to answer may not be threatened, insulted, or exposed to any unpleasant or disadvantageous treatment of any kind.
Confinement is illegal (POWs can't be held in prison cells unless it is for their own protection), but internment is allowed -- they may be kept within certain boundaries. However, their location must be as far from the fighting as possible. Besides being held in a special "camp," prisoners of war are supposed to be granted all of the rights and privileges that their captor grants to its own armed forces, at least in terms of food, water, shelter, clothing, exercise, correspondence, religious practice and other basic human needs. They are supposed to be informed of their exact location -- supplied with their mailing address, in fact -- so that their relatives may send them letters and packages.
Beyond the protection from violence, intimidation and affronts to personal dignity, prisoners of war are supposed to be safeguarded from "public curiosity" (Geneva III). The broadcasting of pictures and video of wounded prisoners of war is an affront to their dignity and an appeal to public curiosity, and as such is prohibited.
Once captured by the enemy, prisoners of war are subject to the laws of the armed force that is holding them. They must act according to the rules and regulations of their captors, and breaking those rules leaves them open to the same trial and punishment as that faced by a member of the detaining military. They are under the control of the detaining power and their detention is legal; as such, their escape is a breach of that law. So if they escape, they can be punished. But only if they are recaptured before they make it make to their own army. If they successfully escape -- if they return to the territory of their own armed forces -- and then are captured once again, they cannot be punished for their previous escape. This same rule of success negating the offense applies to spies who escape their captors: If a spy breaks free and is caught before he makes it "home," he can still be tried as a spy; if he makes it back to his own side and is then recaptured, he is no longer considered a spy who is subject to trial and punishment -- he is considered a prisoner of war, and is therefore protected.
POW STATUS
When taken by the enemy, the following people are classified as prisoners of war:
- Members of the armed forces
- Members of militias and other volunteer corps
- Members of the armed forces of a government not recognized by the enemy
- People who accompany the armed forces (such as members of the media)
- Crews of the merchant marine and civil aircraft
**Remember indian, black, mulatto, negro and colored are the same!! Just different names to cause confusion and division!!**
Early Forms of Slavery during Settlement
Slavery, generally absent any modern conception of race, had long been common practice around the world and usually involved the enslavement of war captives. For centuries before European settlement, American Indian tribes had enslaved other Indians as a cultural practice—but not as a means of recruiting a dominant labor source. The Spanish, in turn, enslaved Indians to work on North American sugar plantations, using the repartimiento and encomienda systems to apportion Indians and land, and to govern their use, respectively. Only when mistreatment decimated whole indigenous populations did the Spanish government, in 1542, outlaw Indian slavery, at least in name. The practice continued in deed.
Neither the Spanish nor the English immediately sought to enslave the Indians they encountered. Indian slavery did not become official Spanish policy until 1503, or eleven years after first contact. It is clear that the English wanted to mimic Spanish efforts at creating indigenous tributaries for a labor force, but it took them even longer. The tributary relationship involved the exchange of Indian goods and labor for colonial protection against enemy tribes. Upon their arrival in 1607, the English initially sought to establish this kind of tributary trading relationship with the Algonquian-speaking Indians of Tsenacomoco, a paramount chiefdom of twenty-eight to thirty-two small chiefdoms and tribes stretching from the James to the Potomac rivers. The Indians had food the English needed and the English provided tools, weapons, fabric, and copper-made items the Indians considered to be spiritually valuable. Indians labored for the English as indentured servants without clearly defined rights or lengths of service. Conflict soon weakened such relationships.
The Massacre of the Settlers
Virginia Indians murder men, women, and children in a surprise attack that took place in the English colony on March 22, 1622. This fanciful image, created by the renowned de Bry engraving and publishing company in Frankfurt, Germany, depicts Jamestown (seen in the background), as a European-style moated and fortified village. In fact, the attacks took place on plantations along the James that were some distance from Jamestown. The Virginia Company of London issued an official report written by Edward Waterhouse that recounted the event in which 347 colonists, or at least a quarter of Virginia's English population, were killed. The report stated that the colonists had been executed with the purpose of their "utter extirpation." The Indians, according to Waterhouse, were "beasts," "without remorse or pitty," a "Viperous brood" of "hell-hounds" and "wicked Infidels" who "despised Gods great mercies."
Original Author: Matthäus Merian
Created: 1634
Medium: Engraving
Courtesy of The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation
An early mention of an Indian slave appears in the context of the First Anglo-Powhatan War (1609–1614). In his Trewe Relacyon, George Percy recounts an English march on an Indian town guided by an Indian named Kempes, who was "led in a hand locke" and is described as a slave working under the threat of beatings and beheading. The war, meanwhile, resulted in English expansion outside Jamestown, which helped create another use for forced Indian labor. With the subsequent development of tobacco as a cash crop came the need for an abundant and cheap labor supply to work the fields. Then, on March 22, 1622, Indians under the leadership of Opechancanough attacked settlements along the James River, killing nearly a third of the English population and initiating the Second Anglo-Powhatan War (1622–1632). With the friendly tributary approach decaying, a new English policy toward the Indians was born of this violence and found expression in the official Virginia Company of London report of the 1622 attack, A Declaration of the state of the Colonie and Affaires in Virginia. Describing Virginia's Indians as "a rude, barbarous, and naked people" who worship the devil, the report's author argued that "the Indians who before were used as friends may now most justly be compelled to servitude and drudgery." As the historian C. S. Everett has explained, the enslavement of Indians from 1610 to 1645 tended to be a form of "punitive retribution."
Animosity and distrust was growing between the English and the Indians. Indians continued to provide labor under circumstances that, while legally unclear, often amounted to slavery. Everett has argued that deeds and wills from this time period indicate that Indians were inherited within white families and that they "were not indentured servants … Indisputably, and by 1661 at the latest, Indians could be—and were—lifelong servants." In other words, they were slaves.
Only after the Third Anglo-Powhatan War (1644–1646) did Indian slavery become a lucrative part of the Virginia economy. The treaty ending the war defined the tribes and chiefdoms of Tsenacomoco as a tributaries and subject to English rule, requiring yearly payment to the crown and dictating where Indians could live, hunt, and trade. To coerce Indians to comply with the treaty, the English also demanded that Indian children "shall or will freely or voluntarily come in and live with the English"—serving as hostage-servants in English households. The English claimed they were educating and converting the children to Christianity as part of the tributary system, but many Indians complained that these children were subsequently sold on the slave market.
By 1649, the enslavement of children in English households and the stealing of Indian children for the slave market was so common that the General Assembly enacted two laws: one stipulating that no tributary children could be sold as slaves, the other that they could not be kept in households after the age of twenty-five. The assembly passed similar prohibitions in 1655, 1656, and in 1657, outlining punishments for anyone stealing and enslaving Indian children. Despite these laws, by the late seventeenth century many Indians refused to bring their children to English households due to the threat of enslavement. And even as Virginia prohibited the enslavement of Indian children, the government sometimes encouraged it. Officials in Accomack County, for instance, on June 16, 1670, commissioned a man they called "Mr. John" to find Indian children to sell to the settlers.
Not only were children being enslaved after the 1646 treaty, but the treaty's provisions for English dominance led to the practice of enslaving Indians for legal violations and even as a means of financing war. For instance, when John Powell appealed to the General Assembly in 1660 for damages caused by Indians in Northumberland County, the assembly responded with a retribution act compensating him with the sale of Wicocomoco Indians, who would be "apprehended and sold into a fforraigne country." The historian Edmund S. Morgan has explained that the casual nature of this act "speaks volumes" about the acceptability of enslaving Indians by this period.
Similarly in 1666, Governor Sir William Berkeley presided over the General Court and declared that hostilities with the tribes of the Northern Neck be revenged by "utter destruction," and that taking "their women and children and their goods"—i.e., selling them—would compensate the colony for the costs of the expedition. Although a 1670 law indicated that captives should be servants who are freed at age thirty and not slaves bound to a lifetime of forced labor, the law was largely ignored.
After 1646, Indian labor was more common in many forms, from child hostages to indentured servants to slaves. These enslaved Indians worked in the fields and as house servants, interpreters, hunters, and guides. English colonists preferred enslaved Indian women and children as domestic laborers, rather than African or white laborers, because they were considered easiest to train and control. Indian men were perceived to pose a greater risk of obstinacy and escape, and so they were often profitably sold to American buyers as far away as New England or to the sugar plantations in the West Indies (where they could not escape). The historian Everett has argued that when these external markets became available, financial incentive overtook vengeance as the primary driver of Indian enslavement. When the English colonists began to participate in an existing Indian trade that involved slaves and guns, Indian enslavement briefly became an important part of the colonial economy.
Trading Guns for Slaves
By the middle of the seventeenth century, labor-intensive tobacco dominated the Virginia economy, requiring a large and steady workforce. In addition to mostly white indentured servants and African slaves, English colonists also relied on enslaved Indians. They were purchased often from other Indians, who captured their enemies and traded them to English dealers for English guns. Once some tribes began to be well-armed from the gun trade, others were often compelled to enter the market: if they didn't arm themselves with European weapons and enslave other Indians, they would themselves become targets of slavers. As the English increasingly wanted to trade for slaves, and Indians increasingly wanted to trade for guns, the market focused more on slaves while also becoming more violent.
Several Indian tribes became prominent slavers in Virginia, including the Ricahecrian tribe. Originally from the area around Lake Erie, in New York, the tribe had been displaced by the Iroquois during the Beaver Wars, a series of Indian conflicts during the mid-1600s. In 1656, the Ricahecrian Indians abandoned their settlements in New York and moved south, seeking trade at the falls of the James River in Henrico County. After settling in Virginia and becoming known as the Westo, they became feared raiders. Initially, Colonel Edward Hill was charged by the General Assembly with nonviolently removing the Westo Indians from the region. However, Hill's militia, aided by Pamunkey and Chickahominy forces, fought the Westo at the Battle of Bloody Run (1656), in Richmond, which resulted in the death of Totopotomoy, weroance, or chief, of the Pamunkey. The assembly subsequently suspended Hill and charged him with paying for an agreement of peace with the tribe. The Westo then secured arrangements with English traders to barter guns for slaves. The colony was less concerned with forcing the Westo Indians into tributary status and more interested in profitable trade.
The Westo built an arsenal and began overpowering local tribes in Virginia and North Carolina, enslaving captives for the marketplace. The trade was so successful that, by late 1656, the Westo had expanded their influence, moved farther south out of Virginia to the Savannah River (in what would become Georgia), and began raiding as far south as the Spanish mission towns in the Florida. They raided communities, killing and enslaving for the English market. By 1659, the Spanish reported that these raiders were armed with guns and assisted by traders from Jamestown, such as the preeminent English trader Abraham Wood, who fed the newly enslaved Indians into the Virginia marketplace. In early 1662, Governor Berkeley placed Wood in charge of all trade with Indians like the Westo.
When the Westo vacated their place on the Virginia Piedmont trading path, members of the Occaneechi tribe, living on the falls of the Roanoke River, established themselves as the dominant Indian slave brokers in Virginia. As this trade in guns and slaves became larger and more profitable, conflict among tribes increased. Violence erupted on small and large scales. In 1670, for instance, Occaneechi Indians responded to Westo raids, killing Westo Indians aligned with Wood. The Westo and the Occaneechi raids spurred tribal conflict throughout the entire Southeast, and many Indians were killed, enslaved, or otherwise scattered.
Our ancestor's had their land, history, culture and who knows what-else stolen from them.. And they feed us this fake shit as real!! So, we dont snap outta the trance and start wanting OUR SHIT BACK!!
But as usual, aint nobody listening!!
Brotha X, get your alex haley thread re-up and rolling!!!!
But as usual, aint nobody listening!!
Brotha X, get your alex haley thread re-up and rolling!!!!
**Here's another subject that needs to be in every copper color person head!!** Or atleast read the book Dark Alliance!! If they have used or run the agenda once, you can bet they will run it again just alittle bit different!!
DID THE CIA FLOOD BLACK NEIGHBORHOODS WITH DRUGS IN THE 80s?
Key Figures In CIA-Crack Cocaine Scandal Begin To Come Forward
LOS ANGELES — With the public in the U.S. and Latin America becoming increasingly skeptical of the war on drugs, key figures in a scandal that once rocked the Central Intelligence Agency are coming forward to tell their stories in a new documentary and in a series of interviews with The Huffington Post. More than 18 years have passed since Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Gary Webb stunned the world with his “Dark Alliance” newspaper series investigating the connections between the CIA, a crack cocaine explosion in the predominantly African-American neighborhoods of South Los Angeles, and the Nicaraguan Contra fighters — scandalous implications that outraged LA’s black community, severely damaged the intelligence agency’s reputation and launched a number of federal investigations.
It did not end well for Webb, however. Major media, led by The New York Times, Washington Post and Los Angeles Times, worked to discredit his story. Under intense pressure, Webb’s top editor abandoned him. Webb was drummed out of journalism. One LA Times reporter recently apologized for his leading role in the assault on Webb, but it came too late. Webb died in 2004 from an apparent suicide. Obituaries referred to his investigation as “discredited.” Now, Webb’s bombshell expose is being explored anew in a documentary, “Freeway: Crack in the System,” directed by Marc Levin, which tells the story of “Freeway” Rick Ross, who created a crack empire in LA during the 1980s and is a key figure in Webb’s “Dark Alliance” narrative. The documentary is being released after the major motion picture “Kill The Messenger,” which features Jeremy Renner in the role of Webb and hits theaters on Friday. Webb’s investigation was published in the summer of 1996 in the San Jose Mercury News. In it, he reported that a drug ring that sold millions of dollars worth of cocaine in Los Angeles was funneling its profits to the CIA’s army in Nicaragua, known as the Contras.
Webb’s original anonymous source for his series was Coral Baca, a confidante of Nicaraguan dealer Rafael Cornejo. Baca, Ross and members of his “Freeway boys” crew; cocaine importer and distributor Danilo Blandon; and LA Sheriff’s Deputy Robert Juarez all were interviewed for Levin’s film. The dual release of the feature film and the documentary, along with the willingness of long-hesitant sources to come forward, suggests that Webb may have the last word after all. Webb’s entry point into the sordid tale of corruption was through Baca, a ghostlike figure in the Contra-cocaine narrative who has given precious few interviews over the decades. Her name was revealed in Webb’s 1998 book on the scandal, but was removed at her request in the paperback edition. Levin connected HuffPost with Baca and she agreed to an interview at a cafe in San Francisco. She said that she and Webb didn’t speak for years after he revealed her name, in betrayal of the conditions under which they spoke. He eventually apologized, said Baca, who is played by Paz Vega in “Kill The Messenger.”
The major media that worked to undermine Webb’s investigation acknowledged that Blandon was a major drug-runner as well as a Contra supporter, and that Ross was a leading distributor. But those reports questioned how much drug money Blandon and his boss Norwin Meneses turned over to the Contras, and whether the Contras were aware of the source of the funds. During her interview with HuffPost, Baca recounted meeting Contra leader Adolfo Calero multiple times in the 1980s at Contra fundraisers in the San Francisco Bay Area. He would personally pick up duffel bags full of drug money, she said, which it was her job to count for Cornejo. There was no question, she said, that Calero knew precisely how the money had been earned. Meneses’ nickname, after all, was El Rey De Las Drogas — The King of Drugs.
“If he was stupid and had a lobotomy,” he might not have known it was drug money, Baca said. “He knew exactly what it was. He didn’t care. He was there to fund the Contras, period.” (Baca made a similar charge confidentially to the Department of Justice for its 1997 review of Webb’s allegations, as well as further allegations the investigators rejected.) Indeed, though the mainstream media at the time worked to poke holes in Webb’s findings, believing that the Contra operation was not involved with drug-running takes an enormous suspension of disbelief. Even before Webb’s series was published, numerous government investigations and news reports had linked America’s support for the Nicaraguan rebels with drug trafficking. After The Associated Press reported on these connections in 1985, for example, more than a decade before Webb, then-Sen. John Kerry (D-Mass.) launched a congressional investigation. In 1989, Kerry released a detailed report claiming that not only was there “considerable evidence” linking the Contra effort to trafficking of drugs and weapons, but that the U.S. government knew about it.
According to the report, many of the pilots ferrying weapons and supplies south for the CIA were known to have backgrounds in drug trafficking. Kerry’s investigation cited SETCO Aviation, the company the U.S. had contracted to handle many of the flights, as an example of CIA complicity in the drug trade. According to a 1983 Customs Service report, SETCO was “headed by Juan Ramon Matta Ballesteros, a class I DEA violator.” Two years before the Iran-Contra scandal would begin to bubble up in the Reagan White House, pilot William Robert “Tosh” Plumlee revealed to then-Sen. Gary Hart (D-Colo.) that planes would routinely transport cocaine back to the U.S. after dropping off arms for the Nicaraguan rebels. Plumlee has since spoken in detail about the flights in media interviews. “In March, 1983, Plumlee contacted my Denver Senate Office and … raised several issues including that covert U.S. intelligence agencies were directly involved in the smuggling and distribution of drugs to raise funds for covert military operations against the government of Nicaragua,” a copy of a 1991 letter from Hart to Kerry reads. (Hart told HuffPost he recalls receiving Plumlee’s letter and finding his allegations worthy of follow-up.)
Plumlee flew weapons into Latin America for decades for the CIA. When the Contra revolution took off in the 1980s, Plumlee says he continued to transport arms south for the spy agency and bring cocaine back with him, with the blessing of the U.S. government. The Calero transactions Baca says she witnessed would have been no surprise to the Reagan White House. On April 15, 1985, around the time Baca says she saw Calero accepting bags of cash, Oliver North, the White House National Security Counsel official in charge of the Contra operation, was notified in a memo that Calero’s deputies were involved in the drug business. Robert Owen, North’s top staffer in Central America, warned that Jose Robelo had “potential involvement with drug-running and the sale of goods provided by the [U.S. government]” and that Sebastian Gonzalez was “now involved in drug-running out of Panama.”
North’s own diary, originally uncovered by the National Security Archive, is a rich source of evidence as well. “Honduran DC-6 which is being used for runs out of New Orleans is probably being used for drug runs into the U.S.,” reads an entry for Aug. 9, 1985, reflecting a conversation North had with Owen about Mario Calero, Adolfo’s brother.
An entry from July 12, 1985 relates that “14 million to finance [an arms depot] came from drugs” and another references a trip to Bolivia to pick up “paste.” (Paste is slang term for a crude cocaine derivative product comprised of coca leaves grown in the Andes as well as processing chemicals used during the cocaine manufacturing process.) Celerino Castillo, a top DEA agent in El Salvador, investigated the Contras’ drug-running in the 1980s and repeatedly warned superiors, according to a Justice Department investigation into the matter. Castillo “believes that North and the Contras’ resupply operation at Ilopango were running drugs for the Contras,” Mike Foster, an FBI agent who worked for the Iran-Contra independent counsel Lawrence Walsh, reported in 1991 after meeting with Castillo, who later wrote the book Powderburns about his efforts to expose the drug-running. Webb’s investigation sent the CIA into a panic. A recently declassified article titled “Managing A Nightmare: CIA Public Affairs and the Drug Conspiracy Story,” from the agency’s internal journal, “Studies In Intelligence,” shows that the spy agency was reeling in the weeks that followed.
“The charges could hardly be worse,” the article opens. “A widely read newspaper series leads many Americans to believe CIA is guilty of at least complicity, if not conspiracy, in the outbreak of crack cocaine in America’s inner cities. In more extreme versions of the story circulating on talk radio and the Internet, the Agency was the instrument of a consistent strategy by the US Government to destroy the black community and to keep black Americans from advancing. Denunciations of CIA — reminiscent of the 1970s — abound. investigations are demanded and initiated. The Congress gets involved.” The emergence of Webb’s story “posed a genuine public relations crisis for the Agency,” writes the CIA Directorate of Intelligence staffer, whose name is redacted.
In December 1997, CIA sources helped advance that narrative, telling reporters that an internal inspector general report sparked by Webb’s investigation had exonerated the agency. Yet the report itself, quietly released several weeks later, was actually deeply damaging to the CIA. “In 1984, CIA received allegations that five individuals associated with the Democratic Revolutionary Alliance (ARDE)/Sandino Revolutionary Front (FRS) were engaged in a drug trafficking conspiracy with a known narcotics trafficker, Jorge Morales,” the report found. “CIA broke off contact with ARDE in October 1984, but continued to have contact through 1986-87 with four of the individuals involved with Morales.” It also found that in October 1982, an immigration officer reported that, according to an informant in the Nicaraguan exile community in the Bay Area, “there are indications of links between [a specific U.S.-based religious organization] and two Nicaraguan counter-revolutionary groups. These links involve an exchange in [the United States] of narcotics for arms, which then are shipped to Nicaragua. A meeting on this matter is scheduled to be held in Costa Rica ‘within one month.’ Two names the informant has associated with this matter are Bergman Arguello, a UDN member and exile living in San Francisco, and Chicano Cardenal, resident of Nicaragua.”
The inspector general is clear that in some cases “CIA knowledge of allegations or information indicating that organizations or individuals had been involved in drug trafficking did not deter their use by CIA.” In other cases, “CIA did not act to verify drug trafficking allegations or information even when it had the opportunity to do so.” “Let me be frank about what we are finding,” the CIA’s inspector general, Frederick Hitz, said in congressional testimony in March 1998. “There are instances where CIA did not, in an expeditious or consistent fashion, cut off relationships with individuals supporting the Contra program who were alleged to have engaged in drug trafficking activity or take action to resolve the allegations.” One of the keys to Webb’s story was testimony from Danilo Blandon, who the Department of Justice once described as one of the most significant Nicaraguan drug importers in the 1980s.
“You were running the LA operation, is that correct?” Blandon, who was serving as a government witness in the 1990s, was asked by Alan Fenster, attorney representing Rick Ross, in 1996. “Yes. But remember, we were running, just — whatever we were running in LA, it goes, the profit, it was going to the Contra revolution,” Blandon said. Levin, the documentary filmmaker, tracked down Blandon in Managua. “Gary Webb tried to find me, Congresswoman Maxine Waters tried to find me, Oliver Stone tried to find me. You found me,” Blandon told Levin, according to notes from the interview the director provided to HuffPost.
Waters, a congresswoman from Los Angeles, had followed Webb’s investigation with one of her own. In the interview notes with filmmaker Levin, Blandon confirms his support of the Contras and his role in drug trafficking, but downplays his significance. “The big lie is that we started it all — the crack epidemic — we were just a small part. There were the Torres [brothers], the Colombians, and others,” he says. “We were a little marble, pebble, rock and [people are] acting like we’re big boulder.” Webb’s series connected the Contras’ drug-running directly to the growth of crack in the U.S., and it was this connection that faced the most pushback from critics. While Blandon may have been operating on behalf of the Contras early in his career, they charged, he later broke off on his own. But an October 1986 arrest warrant for Blandon indicates that the LA County Sheriff’s Department at the time had other information.
“Blandon is in charge of a sophisticated cocaine smuggling and distribution organization operating in southern California,” the warrant reads, according to Webb’s orginal report. “The monies gained through the sales of cocaine are transported to Florida and laundered through Orlando Murillo who is a high-ranking officer in a chain of banks in Florida. … From this bank the monies are filtered to the Contra rebels to buy arms in the war in Nicaragua.” Blandon’s number-one client was “Freeway” Rick Ross, whose name has since been usurped by the rapper William Leonard Roberts, better known by his stage name “Rick Ross” (an indignity that plays a major role in the film). The original Ross, who was arrested in 1995 and freed from prison in 2009, told Webb in “Dark Alliance” that the prices and quantity Blandon was offering transformed him from a small-time dealer into what prosecutors would later describe as the most significant crack cocaine merchant in Los Angeles, if not the country. His empire — once dubbed the “Walmart” of crack cocaine — expanded east from LA to major cities throughout the Midwest before he was eventually taken down during a DEA sting his old supplier and friend Blandon helped set up.
Levin’s film not only explores the corrupt foundations of the drug war itself, but also calls into question the draconian jail sentences the U.S. justice system meted out to a mostly minority population, while the country’s own foreign policy abetted the drug trade. “I knew that these laws were a mistake when we were writing them,” says Eric Sterling, who was counsel to the U.S. House Judiciary Committee in the 1980s and a key contributor to the passage of mandatory-minimum sentencing laws, in the documentary. In 1980, there were roughly 40,000 drug offenders in U.S. prisons, according to research from The Sentencing Project, a prison sentencing reform group. By 2011, the number of drug offenders serving prison sentences ballooned to more than 500,000 — most of whom are not high-level operators and are without prior criminal records. “There is no question that there are tens of thousands of black people in prison serving sentences that are decades excessive,” Sterling says. “Their families have been destroyed because of laws I played a central role in writing.”
The height of the drug war in the 1980s also saw the beginning of the militarization of local law enforcement, the tentacles of which are seen to this day, most recently in Ferguson, Missouri. In an interview with The Huffington Post, former LA County Sheriff’s Deputy Robert Juarez, who served with the department from 1976 to 1991 and was later convicted along with several other deputies in 1992 during a federal investigation of sheriff officers stealing seized drug money, described a drug war culture that frequently put law enforcement officers into morally questionable situations that were difficult to navigate. “We all started getting weapons,” said Juarez, who served five years in prison for skimming drug-bust money. “We were hitting houses coming up with Uzis, AK-47s, and we’re walking in with a six-shooter and a shotgun. So guys started saying, ‘I’m going to get me a semi-automatic and the crooks are paying for it.’ So that’s how it started.”
But Juarez, who served in the LA County Sheriff’s narcotics division for nearly a decade, explained that what started as a way for some officers to pay for extra weapons and informants to aid in investigations quickly devolved into greed. Since asset forfeiture laws at the time allowed the county to keep all cash seized during a drug bust, Juarez says tactics changed. “It got to where we were more tax collectors than we were dope cops,” Juarez recalled. “Everything seized was coming right back to the county. We turned into the same kind of crooks we’d been following around ... moving evidence around to make sure the asshole goes to jail; backing up other deputies regardless of what it was. Everyone, to use a drug dealer’s term, everyone was taking a taste.”
Between 1982 and 1984, Congress restricted funding for the Contras, and by 1985 cut it off entirely. The Reagan administration, undeterred, conspired to sell arms to Iran in exchange for hostages (of the Iran Embassy takeover), using some of the proceeds to illegally fund the Contras. The scandal became known as Iran-Contra. Drug trafficking was a much less convoluted method of skirting the congressional ban on funding the Contras, and the CIA’s inspector general found that in the early years after Congress cut off Contra funding, the CIA had alerted Congress about the allegations of drug trafficking. But while the ban was in effect, the CIA went largely silent on the issue. “CIA did not inform Congress of all allegations or information it received indicating that Contra-related organizations or individuals were involved in drug trafficking,” the inspector general’s report found. “During the period in which the FY 1987 statutory prohibition was in effect, for example, no information has been found to indicate that CIA informed Congress of eight of the ten Contra-related individuals concerning whom CIA had received drug trafficking allegations or information.”
This complicity of the CIA in drug trafficking is at the heart of Webb’s explosive expose — a point Webb makes himself in archival interview footage that appears in Levin’s documentary. “It’s not a situation where the government or the CIA sat down and said, ‘Okay, let’s invent crack, let’s sell it in black neighborhoods, let’s decimate black America,’” Webb says. “It was a situation where, ‘We need money for a covert operation, the quickest way to raise it is sell cocaine, you guys go sell it somewhere, we don’t want to know anything about it.’”
So to hell with the *******! See more about the antics of the Republican Albino Saint, Ronald Reagan, in other pages of this site. Like Donald Trump he was also mentally challenged (Alzheimer's), and like with Donald Trump, Albinos ignored or covered up his mental problems because they liked his Racism!
DID THE CIA FLOOD BLACK NEIGHBORHOODS WITH DRUGS IN THE 80s?
Key Figures In CIA-Crack Cocaine Scandal Begin To Come Forward
By Ryan Grim, Matt Sledge, and Matt Ferner
LOS ANGELES — With the public in the U.S. and Latin America becoming increasingly skeptical of the war on drugs, key figures in a scandal that once rocked the Central Intelligence Agency are coming forward to tell their stories in a new documentary and in a series of interviews with The Huffington Post. More than 18 years have passed since Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Gary Webb stunned the world with his “Dark Alliance” newspaper series investigating the connections between the CIA, a crack cocaine explosion in the predominantly African-American neighborhoods of South Los Angeles, and the Nicaraguan Contra fighters — scandalous implications that outraged LA’s black community, severely damaged the intelligence agency’s reputation and launched a number of federal investigations.
It did not end well for Webb, however. Major media, led by The New York Times, Washington Post and Los Angeles Times, worked to discredit his story. Under intense pressure, Webb’s top editor abandoned him. Webb was drummed out of journalism. One LA Times reporter recently apologized for his leading role in the assault on Webb, but it came too late. Webb died in 2004 from an apparent suicide. Obituaries referred to his investigation as “discredited.” Now, Webb’s bombshell expose is being explored anew in a documentary, “Freeway: Crack in the System,” directed by Marc Levin, which tells the story of “Freeway” Rick Ross, who created a crack empire in LA during the 1980s and is a key figure in Webb’s “Dark Alliance” narrative. The documentary is being released after the major motion picture “Kill The Messenger,” which features Jeremy Renner in the role of Webb and hits theaters on Friday. Webb’s investigation was published in the summer of 1996 in the San Jose Mercury News. In it, he reported that a drug ring that sold millions of dollars worth of cocaine in Los Angeles was funneling its profits to the CIA’s army in Nicaragua, known as the Contras.
Webb’s original anonymous source for his series was Coral Baca, a confidante of Nicaraguan dealer Rafael Cornejo. Baca, Ross and members of his “Freeway boys” crew; cocaine importer and distributor Danilo Blandon; and LA Sheriff’s Deputy Robert Juarez all were interviewed for Levin’s film. The dual release of the feature film and the documentary, along with the willingness of long-hesitant sources to come forward, suggests that Webb may have the last word after all. Webb’s entry point into the sordid tale of corruption was through Baca, a ghostlike figure in the Contra-cocaine narrative who has given precious few interviews over the decades. Her name was revealed in Webb’s 1998 book on the scandal, but was removed at her request in the paperback edition. Levin connected HuffPost with Baca and she agreed to an interview at a cafe in San Francisco. She said that she and Webb didn’t speak for years after he revealed her name, in betrayal of the conditions under which they spoke. He eventually apologized, said Baca, who is played by Paz Vega in “Kill The Messenger.”
The major media that worked to undermine Webb’s investigation acknowledged that Blandon was a major drug-runner as well as a Contra supporter, and that Ross was a leading distributor. But those reports questioned how much drug money Blandon and his boss Norwin Meneses turned over to the Contras, and whether the Contras were aware of the source of the funds. During her interview with HuffPost, Baca recounted meeting Contra leader Adolfo Calero multiple times in the 1980s at Contra fundraisers in the San Francisco Bay Area. He would personally pick up duffel bags full of drug money, she said, which it was her job to count for Cornejo. There was no question, she said, that Calero knew precisely how the money had been earned. Meneses’ nickname, after all, was El Rey De Las Drogas — The King of Drugs.
“If he was stupid and had a lobotomy,” he might not have known it was drug money, Baca said. “He knew exactly what it was. He didn’t care. He was there to fund the Contras, period.” (Baca made a similar charge confidentially to the Department of Justice for its 1997 review of Webb’s allegations, as well as further allegations the investigators rejected.) Indeed, though the mainstream media at the time worked to poke holes in Webb’s findings, believing that the Contra operation was not involved with drug-running takes an enormous suspension of disbelief. Even before Webb’s series was published, numerous government investigations and news reports had linked America’s support for the Nicaraguan rebels with drug trafficking. After The Associated Press reported on these connections in 1985, for example, more than a decade before Webb, then-Sen. John Kerry (D-Mass.) launched a congressional investigation. In 1989, Kerry released a detailed report claiming that not only was there “considerable evidence” linking the Contra effort to trafficking of drugs and weapons, but that the U.S. government knew about it.
According to the report, many of the pilots ferrying weapons and supplies south for the CIA were known to have backgrounds in drug trafficking. Kerry’s investigation cited SETCO Aviation, the company the U.S. had contracted to handle many of the flights, as an example of CIA complicity in the drug trade. According to a 1983 Customs Service report, SETCO was “headed by Juan Ramon Matta Ballesteros, a class I DEA violator.” Two years before the Iran-Contra scandal would begin to bubble up in the Reagan White House, pilot William Robert “Tosh” Plumlee revealed to then-Sen. Gary Hart (D-Colo.) that planes would routinely transport cocaine back to the U.S. after dropping off arms for the Nicaraguan rebels. Plumlee has since spoken in detail about the flights in media interviews. “In March, 1983, Plumlee contacted my Denver Senate Office and … raised several issues including that covert U.S. intelligence agencies were directly involved in the smuggling and distribution of drugs to raise funds for covert military operations against the government of Nicaragua,” a copy of a 1991 letter from Hart to Kerry reads. (Hart told HuffPost he recalls receiving Plumlee’s letter and finding his allegations worthy of follow-up.)
Plumlee flew weapons into Latin America for decades for the CIA. When the Contra revolution took off in the 1980s, Plumlee says he continued to transport arms south for the spy agency and bring cocaine back with him, with the blessing of the U.S. government. The Calero transactions Baca says she witnessed would have been no surprise to the Reagan White House. On April 15, 1985, around the time Baca says she saw Calero accepting bags of cash, Oliver North, the White House National Security Counsel official in charge of the Contra operation, was notified in a memo that Calero’s deputies were involved in the drug business. Robert Owen, North’s top staffer in Central America, warned that Jose Robelo had “potential involvement with drug-running and the sale of goods provided by the [U.S. government]” and that Sebastian Gonzalez was “now involved in drug-running out of Panama.”
North’s own diary, originally uncovered by the National Security Archive, is a rich source of evidence as well. “Honduran DC-6 which is being used for runs out of New Orleans is probably being used for drug runs into the U.S.,” reads an entry for Aug. 9, 1985, reflecting a conversation North had with Owen about Mario Calero, Adolfo’s brother.
An entry from July 12, 1985 relates that “14 million to finance [an arms depot] came from drugs” and another references a trip to Bolivia to pick up “paste.” (Paste is slang term for a crude cocaine derivative product comprised of coca leaves grown in the Andes as well as processing chemicals used during the cocaine manufacturing process.) Celerino Castillo, a top DEA agent in El Salvador, investigated the Contras’ drug-running in the 1980s and repeatedly warned superiors, according to a Justice Department investigation into the matter. Castillo “believes that North and the Contras’ resupply operation at Ilopango were running drugs for the Contras,” Mike Foster, an FBI agent who worked for the Iran-Contra independent counsel Lawrence Walsh, reported in 1991 after meeting with Castillo, who later wrote the book Powderburns about his efforts to expose the drug-running. Webb’s investigation sent the CIA into a panic. A recently declassified article titled “Managing A Nightmare: CIA Public Affairs and the Drug Conspiracy Story,” from the agency’s internal journal, “Studies In Intelligence,” shows that the spy agency was reeling in the weeks that followed.
“The charges could hardly be worse,” the article opens. “A widely read newspaper series leads many Americans to believe CIA is guilty of at least complicity, if not conspiracy, in the outbreak of crack cocaine in America’s inner cities. In more extreme versions of the story circulating on talk radio and the Internet, the Agency was the instrument of a consistent strategy by the US Government to destroy the black community and to keep black Americans from advancing. Denunciations of CIA — reminiscent of the 1970s — abound. investigations are demanded and initiated. The Congress gets involved.” The emergence of Webb’s story “posed a genuine public relations crisis for the Agency,” writes the CIA Directorate of Intelligence staffer, whose name is redacted.
In December 1997, CIA sources helped advance that narrative, telling reporters that an internal inspector general report sparked by Webb’s investigation had exonerated the agency. Yet the report itself, quietly released several weeks later, was actually deeply damaging to the CIA. “In 1984, CIA received allegations that five individuals associated with the Democratic Revolutionary Alliance (ARDE)/Sandino Revolutionary Front (FRS) were engaged in a drug trafficking conspiracy with a known narcotics trafficker, Jorge Morales,” the report found. “CIA broke off contact with ARDE in October 1984, but continued to have contact through 1986-87 with four of the individuals involved with Morales.” It also found that in October 1982, an immigration officer reported that, according to an informant in the Nicaraguan exile community in the Bay Area, “there are indications of links between [a specific U.S.-based religious organization] and two Nicaraguan counter-revolutionary groups. These links involve an exchange in [the United States] of narcotics for arms, which then are shipped to Nicaragua. A meeting on this matter is scheduled to be held in Costa Rica ‘within one month.’ Two names the informant has associated with this matter are Bergman Arguello, a UDN member and exile living in San Francisco, and Chicano Cardenal, resident of Nicaragua.”
The inspector general is clear that in some cases “CIA knowledge of allegations or information indicating that organizations or individuals had been involved in drug trafficking did not deter their use by CIA.” In other cases, “CIA did not act to verify drug trafficking allegations or information even when it had the opportunity to do so.” “Let me be frank about what we are finding,” the CIA’s inspector general, Frederick Hitz, said in congressional testimony in March 1998. “There are instances where CIA did not, in an expeditious or consistent fashion, cut off relationships with individuals supporting the Contra program who were alleged to have engaged in drug trafficking activity or take action to resolve the allegations.” One of the keys to Webb’s story was testimony from Danilo Blandon, who the Department of Justice once described as one of the most significant Nicaraguan drug importers in the 1980s.
“You were running the LA operation, is that correct?” Blandon, who was serving as a government witness in the 1990s, was asked by Alan Fenster, attorney representing Rick Ross, in 1996. “Yes. But remember, we were running, just — whatever we were running in LA, it goes, the profit, it was going to the Contra revolution,” Blandon said. Levin, the documentary filmmaker, tracked down Blandon in Managua. “Gary Webb tried to find me, Congresswoman Maxine Waters tried to find me, Oliver Stone tried to find me. You found me,” Blandon told Levin, according to notes from the interview the director provided to HuffPost.
Waters, a congresswoman from Los Angeles, had followed Webb’s investigation with one of her own. In the interview notes with filmmaker Levin, Blandon confirms his support of the Contras and his role in drug trafficking, but downplays his significance. “The big lie is that we started it all — the crack epidemic — we were just a small part. There were the Torres [brothers], the Colombians, and others,” he says. “We were a little marble, pebble, rock and [people are] acting like we’re big boulder.” Webb’s series connected the Contras’ drug-running directly to the growth of crack in the U.S., and it was this connection that faced the most pushback from critics. While Blandon may have been operating on behalf of the Contras early in his career, they charged, he later broke off on his own. But an October 1986 arrest warrant for Blandon indicates that the LA County Sheriff’s Department at the time had other information.
“Blandon is in charge of a sophisticated cocaine smuggling and distribution organization operating in southern California,” the warrant reads, according to Webb’s orginal report. “The monies gained through the sales of cocaine are transported to Florida and laundered through Orlando Murillo who is a high-ranking officer in a chain of banks in Florida. … From this bank the monies are filtered to the Contra rebels to buy arms in the war in Nicaragua.” Blandon’s number-one client was “Freeway” Rick Ross, whose name has since been usurped by the rapper William Leonard Roberts, better known by his stage name “Rick Ross” (an indignity that plays a major role in the film). The original Ross, who was arrested in 1995 and freed from prison in 2009, told Webb in “Dark Alliance” that the prices and quantity Blandon was offering transformed him from a small-time dealer into what prosecutors would later describe as the most significant crack cocaine merchant in Los Angeles, if not the country. His empire — once dubbed the “Walmart” of crack cocaine — expanded east from LA to major cities throughout the Midwest before he was eventually taken down during a DEA sting his old supplier and friend Blandon helped set up.
Levin’s film not only explores the corrupt foundations of the drug war itself, but also calls into question the draconian jail sentences the U.S. justice system meted out to a mostly minority population, while the country’s own foreign policy abetted the drug trade. “I knew that these laws were a mistake when we were writing them,” says Eric Sterling, who was counsel to the U.S. House Judiciary Committee in the 1980s and a key contributor to the passage of mandatory-minimum sentencing laws, in the documentary. In 1980, there were roughly 40,000 drug offenders in U.S. prisons, according to research from The Sentencing Project, a prison sentencing reform group. By 2011, the number of drug offenders serving prison sentences ballooned to more than 500,000 — most of whom are not high-level operators and are without prior criminal records. “There is no question that there are tens of thousands of black people in prison serving sentences that are decades excessive,” Sterling says. “Their families have been destroyed because of laws I played a central role in writing.”
The height of the drug war in the 1980s also saw the beginning of the militarization of local law enforcement, the tentacles of which are seen to this day, most recently in Ferguson, Missouri. In an interview with The Huffington Post, former LA County Sheriff’s Deputy Robert Juarez, who served with the department from 1976 to 1991 and was later convicted along with several other deputies in 1992 during a federal investigation of sheriff officers stealing seized drug money, described a drug war culture that frequently put law enforcement officers into morally questionable situations that were difficult to navigate. “We all started getting weapons,” said Juarez, who served five years in prison for skimming drug-bust money. “We were hitting houses coming up with Uzis, AK-47s, and we’re walking in with a six-shooter and a shotgun. So guys started saying, ‘I’m going to get me a semi-automatic and the crooks are paying for it.’ So that’s how it started.”
But Juarez, who served in the LA County Sheriff’s narcotics division for nearly a decade, explained that what started as a way for some officers to pay for extra weapons and informants to aid in investigations quickly devolved into greed. Since asset forfeiture laws at the time allowed the county to keep all cash seized during a drug bust, Juarez says tactics changed. “It got to where we were more tax collectors than we were dope cops,” Juarez recalled. “Everything seized was coming right back to the county. We turned into the same kind of crooks we’d been following around ... moving evidence around to make sure the asshole goes to jail; backing up other deputies regardless of what it was. Everyone, to use a drug dealer’s term, everyone was taking a taste.”
Between 1982 and 1984, Congress restricted funding for the Contras, and by 1985 cut it off entirely. The Reagan administration, undeterred, conspired to sell arms to Iran in exchange for hostages (of the Iran Embassy takeover), using some of the proceeds to illegally fund the Contras. The scandal became known as Iran-Contra. Drug trafficking was a much less convoluted method of skirting the congressional ban on funding the Contras, and the CIA’s inspector general found that in the early years after Congress cut off Contra funding, the CIA had alerted Congress about the allegations of drug trafficking. But while the ban was in effect, the CIA went largely silent on the issue. “CIA did not inform Congress of all allegations or information it received indicating that Contra-related organizations or individuals were involved in drug trafficking,” the inspector general’s report found. “During the period in which the FY 1987 statutory prohibition was in effect, for example, no information has been found to indicate that CIA informed Congress of eight of the ten Contra-related individuals concerning whom CIA had received drug trafficking allegations or information.”
This complicity of the CIA in drug trafficking is at the heart of Webb’s explosive expose — a point Webb makes himself in archival interview footage that appears in Levin’s documentary. “It’s not a situation where the government or the CIA sat down and said, ‘Okay, let’s invent crack, let’s sell it in black neighborhoods, let’s decimate black America,’” Webb says. “It was a situation where, ‘We need money for a covert operation, the quickest way to raise it is sell cocaine, you guys go sell it somewhere, we don’t want to know anything about it.’”
So to hell with the *******! See more about the antics of the Republican Albino Saint, Ronald Reagan, in other pages of this site. Like Donald Trump he was also mentally challenged (Alzheimer's), and like with Donald Trump, Albinos ignored or covered up his mental problems because they liked his Racism!
**Black Cowboys**
The Introduction of Cattle into Colonial North America
Cattle were imported directly to Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, New Hampshire, Delaware, and possibly southern New Jersey, from the colonizing European countries. Many cattle, however, were brought into the southwest, the Gulf area, Florida and the southeast from the Spanish possessions in the West Indies and from Mexico. It also appears that many cattle containing at least some Spanish inheritance were shipped into Virginia, Delaware, New Jersey, and Massachusetts. The initial mass importations of cattle from Europe into the North American colonies ceased about 1640. From that date to the American Revolution the cattle needs of the colonies were taken care of through intercolonial trade, or through trade with the Spanish colonies in the Western Hemisphere. A few cattle from the French Colonies in the St. Lawrence River Valley found their way into the “Old Northwest”.
The Texas Longhorn
The roots of the Texas Longhorn go back to the late 1400s. Cattle were not indigenous to North America, but were introduced by gold-seeking Spanish conquistadors. The first Spanish explorers turned their dark, thin-legged, wiry Moorish-Andalusian cattle loose on the Caribbean Islands. [The Moorish invasions from the 8th to the 13th centuries: The Moors brought cattle with them which had African genes, and of course the European cattle were there as well. All those influences come together in the cattle of the Iberian peninsula.]
These Andalusians, known as ‘Black cattle,’ also produced Spanish fighting bulls. Left on their own, the cattle strayed, grew larger and soon turned wild. In the wild they thrived, growing heavy-boned, skinny and swift. Their long legs and long horns provided offensive weapons and defensive protection. They also developed a fiery temper and a malicious cleverness.
In 1521, Spanish sea captain Gregorio de Villalobos, defying a law prohibiting cattle trading in Mexico, left Santo Domingo with six cows and a bull and set sail to Veracruz, Mexico. The explorer Hernando Cortes also set sail with Criollo, or Spanish, cattle to have beef while on his expeditions. He branded his herds with three crosses-the first brand recorded in North America.
As more Spanish explorers headed north, their crippled and exhausted cows were left behind, loose on the trail, to fend for themselves. These Spanish explorers held to the Castilian tradition that grass was a gift of nature. Spanish cattlemen did not fence in their fields or their herds, and cattle easily wandered off to join the wild population. In the 1820s, settlers in Texas, then part of Mexico, primarily raised European breeds of cattle. The Texas Longhorn is the result of the accidental crossbreeding of escaped descendants of the Criollo cattle and the cows of early American settlers, including English Longhorns.
The easily identifiable result is a wild, slab-sided, ornery, multicolored bovine weighing between 1,000 and 1,500 pounds and having a horn spread of 4 to 7 feet. A Longhorn was considered mature at 10 years, and by then averaged 1,200 pounds. The combination of these characteristics made Longhorns hearty and self-reliant. One of their drawbacks was their meat. It was known to be lean, stringy and tough, but was still better than beef from Criollo cattle. The New York Tribune, on July 4, 1854, described Longhorn beef: ‘The meat is fine-grained and close, somewhat like venison. It is apt to be a little tough.’ These feral cattle, being excellent swimmers, easily crossed the sluggish Rio Grande, but generally were stopped by the more turbulent Red River. By the Mexican War, 1846-1848, the Texas Longhorn had become a recognizable type. Worcester, however, points out that the real Texas Longhorn was ‘a fairly distinct type that appeared in South Texas in large numbers only after the Civil War.’
The Longhorn did not have many enemies. Native Indians did not hunt the wild cattle; they preferred the meat of the tamer and easier to kill buffalo. The Indians also found more uses for buffalo hides and bones than they did for Longhorn leather. Wolves that followed the migrating buffalo herds remained shy and wary of the mean and often deadly Longhorn cattle. With the waning of the buffalo herds, the prairie grasses from Mexico to Canada became fodder for this new, more marketable animal. Most non-Indian Americans never developed a taste for buffalo, and more and more people were taking a liking to beef. A single Longhorn cow needed 10 acres of good plains grass a year for feed, 15 if the ground was dry and scrubby, and there were millions of acres available. Living on the rich Texas plains, a cow would normally have 12 calves in her lifetime, ensuring a steady supply for the new market.
During the Civil War, the unattended Longhorns proliferated. By 1865, about 5 to 6 million Longhorns resided in Texas, and most were unbranded. Many Confederate Army veterans returning from the war built up herds by claiming unmarked cattle and branding them. At that time a steer was worth about $4 in Texas-that was if you could find anyone with the $4. In Chicago, Cincinnati and other meat-packing and market towns up North, that same steer sold for about $40. The problem was getting the steers to market. More than 250,000 steers were driven toward Kansas and Missouri in 1866, but many didn’t make it because farmers, worried about tick fever, would turn them back, and thieves would strike the herds. In 1867, Abilene, Kansas, at the railhead of the Kansas & Pacific, opened up as a major market and became the first of the cow towns: "Cows were transported by train from these Railheads". For the next two decades, Longhorns hit the trails on long but generally profitable drives. There had actually been long drives earlier-such as to New Orleans in the 1830s and to California during the gold rush-but the era of the great trail drives did not begin until after the Civil War.
The Cowboy
To build up herds, cattlemen often hired young ‘brush poppers.’ For $10 a month plus board, they combed the sage brush, popping out cattle as they went. After the spring roundup, the cattle herd was driven north. For this dangerous work a cowboy would earn $30 a month. A drive often covered 1,500 miles and took four to six months. The hours were long, the conditions brutal and the dangers very real. The outdoor work, mostly in the saddle, appealed to a certain breed of men-the American cowboy.
Unpredictable weather and swollen streams would break up the routine on the trails, and no single word could shake up a cow camp quicker than ‘Stampede!’ Every cowboy that ever trailed a herd was concerned about the threat and hazards of a stampede. It wouldn’t take much to get the Longhorns to run: a yelp from a coyote, the rattling of the chuck wagon’s pans, the hiss of a rattlesnake, a cowhand’s sneeze, the flair of a match. In Frederic Remington’s The Stampede, the cause was lightning. ‘Stompede was the old Texian word, and no other cattle known to history had such a disposition to stampede as the Longhorns,’ writes Dobie.
In an instant, a calm herd could become a solid wave of nearly unstoppable alarm and panic. Normally a Longhorn steer would not target a man on horseback, but neither man nor horse was safe during a stampede. The steers themselves usually were at great risk. In Idaho, an 1889 stampede led to the deaths of one cowboy and 341 Longhorns. In Nebraska, in 1876, four cowboys tried to head off 500 stampeding steers. Only three of the men made it; all that was found of their friend was the handle to his revolver Another herd took to running when a tobacco shred from a cowboy’s pouch stuck in a steer’s eye. That unfortunate crew lost two cowboys, and a score were injured. Out of their herd of 4,000 head, 400 cattle were killed. One of the worst stampedes occurred in July 1876 near the Brazos River in Texas. Almost the entire herd plunged into a gully; more than 2,000 head were killed or missing. When cattle stampeded they did not utter a sound, but a cacophony was raised by the clashing of horns and the crashing of hooves. The heat that the massed herd emitted was phenomenal.
Charles Goodnight, one of the 19th century’s most famous cattlemen, once described how the heat ‘almost blistered the faces’ of the men on the lee side of the herd. On a hot night, a steer that ran 10 miles might lose up to 40 pounds. There was only one thing, agreed most cowboys, that could be done to gain control of a runaway herd. That was to ride hellbent for leather toward the head of the herd and get the leaders milling, so that the herd would circle around into itself. The cowboys hoped the cattle would exhaust themselves during the process. The men would wave hats or slickers, beat ropes against chaps and sometimes fire pistols into the ground to try and keep the animals from running. A herd in flight could spread out over a vast area. If the herd ran for 25 miles, the cowboys might have to ride 200 miles rounding up the strays. Working alone, each man fanned out and began riding toward the herd’s new bedding ground. Sometimes small groups of cattle would be found and started back, but finding and driving singles was more often the case.
Every trail herd had its dominant steer, which by instinct strode to the front of the bunch to lead the way. Good lead steers were particularly valuable when crossing a river because hesitant leaders would cause most of the others to stop. If a steer did the job well, it would not be sold; it would be brought home to lead the other herds north. Charles Goodnight owned such a valuable steer in Old Blue, whom he had bought from cattleman John Chisum. During eight seasons, more than 10,000 head followed Old Blue to Dodge City- a one-way trip for them but not for Blue. Goodnight put a bell around Old Blue’s neck, and the other steers learned to follow the familiar ringing. Old Blue, according to range legend, ‘could find the best water, the best grass, and the easiest river crossings, and could even soothe a nervous herd during a storm with his reassuring bawl.’ After his last drive, he was retired to a permanent pasture and lived to be 20 years old. At his death his horns were mounted in a place of honor in the Goodnight ranch office. A good day’s progress for a herd was about 10 miles. Under favorable conditions, Longhorns put on weight while on the trail. Water was the most important necessity during a drive. A Longhorn could drink up to 30 gallons of water a day. Without plenty of fresh water, the cattle became irritable and would stampede.
The Introduction of Cattle into Colonial North America
Cattle were imported directly to Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, New Hampshire, Delaware, and possibly southern New Jersey, from the colonizing European countries. Many cattle, however, were brought into the southwest, the Gulf area, Florida and the southeast from the Spanish possessions in the West Indies and from Mexico. It also appears that many cattle containing at least some Spanish inheritance were shipped into Virginia, Delaware, New Jersey, and Massachusetts. The initial mass importations of cattle from Europe into the North American colonies ceased about 1640. From that date to the American Revolution the cattle needs of the colonies were taken care of through intercolonial trade, or through trade with the Spanish colonies in the Western Hemisphere. A few cattle from the French Colonies in the St. Lawrence River Valley found their way into the “Old Northwest”.
The Texas Longhorn
The roots of the Texas Longhorn go back to the late 1400s. Cattle were not indigenous to North America, but were introduced by gold-seeking Spanish conquistadors. The first Spanish explorers turned their dark, thin-legged, wiry Moorish-Andalusian cattle loose on the Caribbean Islands. [The Moorish invasions from the 8th to the 13th centuries: The Moors brought cattle with them which had African genes, and of course the European cattle were there as well. All those influences come together in the cattle of the Iberian peninsula.]
These Andalusians, known as ‘Black cattle,’ also produced Spanish fighting bulls. Left on their own, the cattle strayed, grew larger and soon turned wild. In the wild they thrived, growing heavy-boned, skinny and swift. Their long legs and long horns provided offensive weapons and defensive protection. They also developed a fiery temper and a malicious cleverness.
In 1521, Spanish sea captain Gregorio de Villalobos, defying a law prohibiting cattle trading in Mexico, left Santo Domingo with six cows and a bull and set sail to Veracruz, Mexico. The explorer Hernando Cortes also set sail with Criollo, or Spanish, cattle to have beef while on his expeditions. He branded his herds with three crosses-the first brand recorded in North America.
As more Spanish explorers headed north, their crippled and exhausted cows were left behind, loose on the trail, to fend for themselves. These Spanish explorers held to the Castilian tradition that grass was a gift of nature. Spanish cattlemen did not fence in their fields or their herds, and cattle easily wandered off to join the wild population. In the 1820s, settlers in Texas, then part of Mexico, primarily raised European breeds of cattle. The Texas Longhorn is the result of the accidental crossbreeding of escaped descendants of the Criollo cattle and the cows of early American settlers, including English Longhorns.
The easily identifiable result is a wild, slab-sided, ornery, multicolored bovine weighing between 1,000 and 1,500 pounds and having a horn spread of 4 to 7 feet. A Longhorn was considered mature at 10 years, and by then averaged 1,200 pounds. The combination of these characteristics made Longhorns hearty and self-reliant. One of their drawbacks was their meat. It was known to be lean, stringy and tough, but was still better than beef from Criollo cattle. The New York Tribune, on July 4, 1854, described Longhorn beef: ‘The meat is fine-grained and close, somewhat like venison. It is apt to be a little tough.’ These feral cattle, being excellent swimmers, easily crossed the sluggish Rio Grande, but generally were stopped by the more turbulent Red River. By the Mexican War, 1846-1848, the Texas Longhorn had become a recognizable type. Worcester, however, points out that the real Texas Longhorn was ‘a fairly distinct type that appeared in South Texas in large numbers only after the Civil War.’
The Longhorn did not have many enemies. Native Indians did not hunt the wild cattle; they preferred the meat of the tamer and easier to kill buffalo. The Indians also found more uses for buffalo hides and bones than they did for Longhorn leather. Wolves that followed the migrating buffalo herds remained shy and wary of the mean and often deadly Longhorn cattle. With the waning of the buffalo herds, the prairie grasses from Mexico to Canada became fodder for this new, more marketable animal. Most non-Indian Americans never developed a taste for buffalo, and more and more people were taking a liking to beef. A single Longhorn cow needed 10 acres of good plains grass a year for feed, 15 if the ground was dry and scrubby, and there were millions of acres available. Living on the rich Texas plains, a cow would normally have 12 calves in her lifetime, ensuring a steady supply for the new market.
During the Civil War, the unattended Longhorns proliferated. By 1865, about 5 to 6 million Longhorns resided in Texas, and most were unbranded. Many Confederate Army veterans returning from the war built up herds by claiming unmarked cattle and branding them. At that time a steer was worth about $4 in Texas-that was if you could find anyone with the $4. In Chicago, Cincinnati and other meat-packing and market towns up North, that same steer sold for about $40. The problem was getting the steers to market. More than 250,000 steers were driven toward Kansas and Missouri in 1866, but many didn’t make it because farmers, worried about tick fever, would turn them back, and thieves would strike the herds. In 1867, Abilene, Kansas, at the railhead of the Kansas & Pacific, opened up as a major market and became the first of the cow towns: "Cows were transported by train from these Railheads". For the next two decades, Longhorns hit the trails on long but generally profitable drives. There had actually been long drives earlier-such as to New Orleans in the 1830s and to California during the gold rush-but the era of the great trail drives did not begin until after the Civil War.
The Cowboy
To build up herds, cattlemen often hired young ‘brush poppers.’ For $10 a month plus board, they combed the sage brush, popping out cattle as they went. After the spring roundup, the cattle herd was driven north. For this dangerous work a cowboy would earn $30 a month. A drive often covered 1,500 miles and took four to six months. The hours were long, the conditions brutal and the dangers very real. The outdoor work, mostly in the saddle, appealed to a certain breed of men-the American cowboy.
Unpredictable weather and swollen streams would break up the routine on the trails, and no single word could shake up a cow camp quicker than ‘Stampede!’ Every cowboy that ever trailed a herd was concerned about the threat and hazards of a stampede. It wouldn’t take much to get the Longhorns to run: a yelp from a coyote, the rattling of the chuck wagon’s pans, the hiss of a rattlesnake, a cowhand’s sneeze, the flair of a match. In Frederic Remington’s The Stampede, the cause was lightning. ‘Stompede was the old Texian word, and no other cattle known to history had such a disposition to stampede as the Longhorns,’ writes Dobie.
In an instant, a calm herd could become a solid wave of nearly unstoppable alarm and panic. Normally a Longhorn steer would not target a man on horseback, but neither man nor horse was safe during a stampede. The steers themselves usually were at great risk. In Idaho, an 1889 stampede led to the deaths of one cowboy and 341 Longhorns. In Nebraska, in 1876, four cowboys tried to head off 500 stampeding steers. Only three of the men made it; all that was found of their friend was the handle to his revolver Another herd took to running when a tobacco shred from a cowboy’s pouch stuck in a steer’s eye. That unfortunate crew lost two cowboys, and a score were injured. Out of their herd of 4,000 head, 400 cattle were killed. One of the worst stampedes occurred in July 1876 near the Brazos River in Texas. Almost the entire herd plunged into a gully; more than 2,000 head were killed or missing. When cattle stampeded they did not utter a sound, but a cacophony was raised by the clashing of horns and the crashing of hooves. The heat that the massed herd emitted was phenomenal.
Charles Goodnight, one of the 19th century’s most famous cattlemen, once described how the heat ‘almost blistered the faces’ of the men on the lee side of the herd. On a hot night, a steer that ran 10 miles might lose up to 40 pounds. There was only one thing, agreed most cowboys, that could be done to gain control of a runaway herd. That was to ride hellbent for leather toward the head of the herd and get the leaders milling, so that the herd would circle around into itself. The cowboys hoped the cattle would exhaust themselves during the process. The men would wave hats or slickers, beat ropes against chaps and sometimes fire pistols into the ground to try and keep the animals from running. A herd in flight could spread out over a vast area. If the herd ran for 25 miles, the cowboys might have to ride 200 miles rounding up the strays. Working alone, each man fanned out and began riding toward the herd’s new bedding ground. Sometimes small groups of cattle would be found and started back, but finding and driving singles was more often the case.
Every trail herd had its dominant steer, which by instinct strode to the front of the bunch to lead the way. Good lead steers were particularly valuable when crossing a river because hesitant leaders would cause most of the others to stop. If a steer did the job well, it would not be sold; it would be brought home to lead the other herds north. Charles Goodnight owned such a valuable steer in Old Blue, whom he had bought from cattleman John Chisum. During eight seasons, more than 10,000 head followed Old Blue to Dodge City- a one-way trip for them but not for Blue. Goodnight put a bell around Old Blue’s neck, and the other steers learned to follow the familiar ringing. Old Blue, according to range legend, ‘could find the best water, the best grass, and the easiest river crossings, and could even soothe a nervous herd during a storm with his reassuring bawl.’ After his last drive, he was retired to a permanent pasture and lived to be 20 years old. At his death his horns were mounted in a place of honor in the Goodnight ranch office. A good day’s progress for a herd was about 10 miles. Under favorable conditions, Longhorns put on weight while on the trail. Water was the most important necessity during a drive. A Longhorn could drink up to 30 gallons of water a day. Without plenty of fresh water, the cattle became irritable and would stampede.
Now that we know that the American Indian was indeed "US".
What do we now say about...
The Buffalo Soldiers who hunted and corralled them?
Which of us is it whose chest does not swell at the
sight of our Brave Buffalo Soldiers Charge?
All people like to see their own in heroic posture.
Encyclopedia Britannica
Buffalo soldier
Buffalo soldier, nickname given to members of African American cavalry regiments of the U.S. Army who served in the western United States from 1867 to 1896, mainly fighting Indians on the frontier. The nickname was given by the Indians, but its significance is uncertain.
Note the the White nonsense about the nickname being given because the
Black Soldiers Hair was like that of the Buffalo is no longer used.
With the knowledge that Indians were Black,
some with Curly hair, some with straight hair:
that story sounds pretty stupid.
The Story of the Buffalo Soldiers
An 1866 law authorized the U.S. Army to form cavalry and infantry regiments of black men; the resulting units were the 9th and 10th cavalries and the 38th through 41st infantries (these four were later reduced to the 24th and 25th infantries, which often fought alongside the cavalry regiments). The law required their officers to be white.
The 10th Cavalry, originally headquartered at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, was commanded by Colonel Benjamin Grierson; his men were provided with aged horses, deteriorating equipment, and inadequate supplies of ammunition. Their duties included escorting stagecoaches, trains, and work parties and policing cattle rustlers and illegal traders who sold guns and liquor to the Indians, but their principal mission was to control the Indians of the Plains and Southwest. After the Red River Indian War (1874–75) the 10th Cavalry was transferred to Texas, where the 9th Cavalry, commanded by Colonel Edward Hatch, had long been based.
The combined forces fought outlaws and Indians who often conducted raids and robberies from sanctuaries in Mexico. They carried out a campaign against the Apache, who were resisting relocation and confinement on reservations. After numerous battles with Victorio and his Apache band, the soldiers managed to subdue them in 1880. While the 10th Cavalry continued in action against the remaining Apache for another decade, the 9th was sent to Indian Territory (later Oklahoma) to deal with whites who were illegally settling on Indian lands. In 1892–96, after Grierson’s retirement, the 10th Cavalry relocated to Montana Territory with orders to round up and deport the Cree Indians to Canada.
Black Civil War Soldier and Family
The buffalo soldiers were noted for their courage and discipline. Drunkenness, an especially widespread problem in the army, was rare among them; in a period when nearly a third of white army enlistees deserted, the black soldiers had the U.S. Army’s lowest desertion and court-martial rates. In nearly 30 years of frontier service buffalo soldiers took part in almost 200 major and minor engagements. From 1870 to 1890, 14 buffalo soldiers were awarded medals of honor, the army’s highest award for bravery. The 9th and 10th cavalries later distinguished themselves by their fighting in the Spanish-American War and in the 1916 Mexican campaign. One of the 10th Cavalry’s officers was John J. Pershing, whose nickname Black Jack reflected his advocacy of black troops.
Buffalo Soldiers have been Glorified by at least three songs and many tales:
But is it justified?
Could it be that the Buffalo Soldiers were really just heartless,
self-hating dupes of the White man?
Fools helping Whites kill and subjugate Black people, just like themselves?
Just as we uncovered the truth about the American Indian, perhaps in time,
we will have a better understanding of the lives and work of the Buffalo Soldiers.
Where some of the Albinos Hate comes from.
The World the Buffalo Soldiers lived in was one of newly empowered Albinos going berserk: mad with power from their "Race-war" victories in Europe, and eager to construct a make-believe history commiserate with their new-found power. Very similar to Donald Trump’s constant attempts to denigrate Barack Obama - a man he knew was his better.
That is why Albinos delusionally insist that all the original people who invented civilization and modern living were THEM! Ridiculously they insist that they were Ancient Egyptians, Minoan's, Mesopotamian's, Greeks, Romans, etc. To aid in their Racist "Myth Making" Albinos fabricated many "Race" studies, and wrote many Race papers, intended to denigrate their former lords - Blacks. The whole point was to cleanse the minds of Blacks under their power, of any memory of their actual history, and replace it with the history supplied to them by the Albinos. Here is a sample of what the Albinos were up to:
On the Negro's Place in Nature, by James Hunt
Wiki:
James Hunt (1833 – 29 August 1869) was a speech therapist in London, England. In 1863 he established the Anthropological Society of London, which after his death merged with the more established Ethnological Society of London to become the Royal Anthropological Institute.
James Hunt was born in Swanage, Dorset, the son of the speech therapist Thomas Hunt. He bought a doctorate from the University of Giessen in Germany and set up a practice in 1856 in Regent Street, London. He dedicated his first Manual on the subject to Charles Kingsley who spent three weeks with him in 1859. He moved to Hastings where ran residential courses during the summer season with his sister Elizabeth's husband, Rev. Henry F. Rivers. In 1854 he joined the Ethnological Society of London because of his interest in racial differences and from 1859 to 1862 was the honorary secretary.
On the Negro's Place in Nature, by James Hunt
Quote: It is not a little remarkable that the subject I propose to bring before you this evening is one which has never been discussed before a scientific audience in this Metropolis. In France, in America, and in Germany, the physical and mental characters of the Negro have been frequently discussed, and England alone has neglected to pay that attention to the question which its importance demands.
Although I shall dwell chiefly on the physical, mental and moral character of the Negro, I shall, at the same time, not hesitate to make such practical, deductions which appear to be warranted from the facts we now have at hand, and trust that a fair and open discussion of this subject may eventually be the means of removing much of the misconception which appears to prevail on this subject both in the minds of the public, and too frequently in the minds of scientific men. Heretofore, however, it has happened that much human passion has been introduced, not only into public discussions, but especially into the literature of this subject. Even such a generally fair and philosophic writer as Professor Waltz has accused men of science of promulgating scientific views which are practically in favor of the so-called " slavery " of the Confederate States of America. Many other scientific men could be named who have equally been guilty of imputing such unfair and uncharitable motives while, on the other hand, scientific men who are thus accused, retort for instance, exclaims: “How I loathe that hypocrisy which claims the same mental, moral and physical equality for the Negro which the whites possess!" No good can come of discussion conducted in such a spirit. If we wish to discover what is truths' we must give each other credit for scientific honesty, and not impute base or interested motives.
In the first place, I would explain that I understand by the Negro, the dark, woolly-headed African found in the neighborhood of the Gambia, Senegal and Kongo rivers. Africa contains, like every other continent, a large number of different races; and these, having become very much mixed, may be estimated as a whole at about 150 millions, occupying a territory of between 13 and 14 millions of square miles. I shall not enter into any disquisition as to the great diversity of physical informatIon that {B found in different races, but shall simply say that my remarks will be confined to the typical woolly-headed Negro. Not only is there a large amount of mixed blood in Africa, but there are also apparently races of very different physical characters, and in as far as they approach the typical Negro, so far will my remarks apply to them. But I shall exclude entirely from consideration all those who have European, Asiatic, Moorish or Berber Blood in their veins.
The foot is flat and the heel is both flat and long. Burmeister has pointed out the resemblance of the foot and the position of the toes of the Negro to those of the ape. The toes are small, the first separated from the second by a free space. Many observers have noticed the fact that the Negro frequently uses the great toe as a thumb. The knees are rather bent, the calves weak, and the upper part of the thigh rather thin. The upper thighbone of the Negro has not so decided a resemblance to the ape as that of the bushman. He rarely stands quite upright, his short neck and large development of the cervical muscles give great strength to the neck; enabling him to fight, or carry large weights on his head. His shoulders, arms, and legs are all weak in comparison.
The hand is always relatively larger than in the European. The palm is flat, thumb narrow, long, and very weak. The great distinguishing characters of the Negro are the flattened forehead, which is low and compressed. The nose and whole face is flattened, and the Negro thus has a facial angle generally between 70 and 75 degrees, occasionally only 65 degrees. The nasal cavities and the orbits are spacious. The skull is very hard and unusually thick; enabling the Negroes to fight or carry heavy weights on their heads with pleasure, the coronal region is arched, but not so much developed as in the European women. The posterior portion of the skull is increased, however, in proportion to that of the anterior being diminished. But M. Gratiolet has shown that the unequal development of the anterior lobes is not the sole of the psychological inequalities of the human races.
From these researches it appears that in the Negro the growth of the brain is sooner arrested than in the Europeans. This premature union of the bones of the skull may give a clue to much of the mental inferiority which is seen in the Negro race. There can be no doubt that in puberty a great change takes place in relation to physical development; but in the Negro there appears to be an arrested development of the brain, exactly harmonizing with the physical formation. Young Negro children are nearly as intelligent as European children; but the older they grow the less intelligent they become. They exhibit, when young, an animal liveliness for play and tricks, far surpassing the European child. The infant ape's skull resembles more the Negro's head than the aged ape, and thus shows a striking analogy in their craniological development.
The above was of course heavily excerpted to provide just some of the "best parts" of this rather long and tedious Albino nonsense. This is the Albino world of Racial hate and lies that the Buffalo Soldiers found themselves in - did it lead to Self-hatred or Stockholm Syndrome?
Wiki:
Self-hatred (also called self-loathing) refers to an extreme dislike or hatred of oneself, or being angry at or even prejudiced against oneself. The term is also used to designate a dislike or hatred of a group, family, social class, or stereotype to which one belongs and/or has. For instance, "ethnic self-hatred" is the extreme dislike of one's ethnic group or cultural classification. Self-hatred and shame are important factors in some or many mental disorders, especially disorders that involve a perceived defect of oneself. Self-hatred is also a symptom of many personality disorders, including borderline personality disorder, as well as depression.
Or even Stockholm Syndrome?
Wiki:
Stockholm Syndrome
In 1973, Jan-Erik Olsson, a convict on parole, took four employees of the bank (three women and one man) hostage during a failed bank robbery in Kreditbanken, one of the largest banks in Stockholm, Sweden. He negotiated the release from prison of his friend Clark Olofsson to assist him. They held the hostages captive for six days in one of the bank’s vaults, while torturing them with nooses and dynamite. When they were released, none of them would testify against either captor in court; instead they began raising money for their defense.
Stockholm syndrome is a condition that causes hostages to develop a psychological alliance with their captors as a survival strategy during captivity. These feelings, resulting from a bond formed between captor and captives during intimate time spent together, are generally considered irrational in light of the danger or risk endured by the victims. Generally speaking, Stockholm syndrome consists of "strong emotional ties that develop between two persons where one person intermittently harasses, beats, threatens, abuses, or intimidates the other.
What do we now say about...
The Buffalo Soldiers who hunted and corralled them?
Which of us is it whose chest does not swell at the
sight of our Brave Buffalo Soldiers Charge?
All people like to see their own in heroic posture.
Encyclopedia Britannica
Buffalo soldier
Buffalo soldier, nickname given to members of African American cavalry regiments of the U.S. Army who served in the western United States from 1867 to 1896, mainly fighting Indians on the frontier. The nickname was given by the Indians, but its significance is uncertain.
Note the the White nonsense about the nickname being given because the
Black Soldiers Hair was like that of the Buffalo is no longer used.
With the knowledge that Indians were Black,
some with Curly hair, some with straight hair:
that story sounds pretty stupid.
The Story of the Buffalo Soldiers
An 1866 law authorized the U.S. Army to form cavalry and infantry regiments of black men; the resulting units were the 9th and 10th cavalries and the 38th through 41st infantries (these four were later reduced to the 24th and 25th infantries, which often fought alongside the cavalry regiments). The law required their officers to be white.
The 10th Cavalry, originally headquartered at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, was commanded by Colonel Benjamin Grierson; his men were provided with aged horses, deteriorating equipment, and inadequate supplies of ammunition. Their duties included escorting stagecoaches, trains, and work parties and policing cattle rustlers and illegal traders who sold guns and liquor to the Indians, but their principal mission was to control the Indians of the Plains and Southwest. After the Red River Indian War (1874–75) the 10th Cavalry was transferred to Texas, where the 9th Cavalry, commanded by Colonel Edward Hatch, had long been based.
The combined forces fought outlaws and Indians who often conducted raids and robberies from sanctuaries in Mexico. They carried out a campaign against the Apache, who were resisting relocation and confinement on reservations. After numerous battles with Victorio and his Apache band, the soldiers managed to subdue them in 1880. While the 10th Cavalry continued in action against the remaining Apache for another decade, the 9th was sent to Indian Territory (later Oklahoma) to deal with whites who were illegally settling on Indian lands. In 1892–96, after Grierson’s retirement, the 10th Cavalry relocated to Montana Territory with orders to round up and deport the Cree Indians to Canada.
Black Civil War Soldier and Family
The buffalo soldiers were noted for their courage and discipline. Drunkenness, an especially widespread problem in the army, was rare among them; in a period when nearly a third of white army enlistees deserted, the black soldiers had the U.S. Army’s lowest desertion and court-martial rates. In nearly 30 years of frontier service buffalo soldiers took part in almost 200 major and minor engagements. From 1870 to 1890, 14 buffalo soldiers were awarded medals of honor, the army’s highest award for bravery. The 9th and 10th cavalries later distinguished themselves by their fighting in the Spanish-American War and in the 1916 Mexican campaign. One of the 10th Cavalry’s officers was John J. Pershing, whose nickname Black Jack reflected his advocacy of black troops.
Buffalo Soldiers have been Glorified by at least three songs and many tales:
But is it justified?
Could it be that the Buffalo Soldiers were really just heartless,
self-hating dupes of the White man?
Fools helping Whites kill and subjugate Black people, just like themselves?
Just as we uncovered the truth about the American Indian, perhaps in time,
we will have a better understanding of the lives and work of the Buffalo Soldiers.
Where some of the Albinos Hate comes from.
The World the Buffalo Soldiers lived in was one of newly empowered Albinos going berserk: mad with power from their "Race-war" victories in Europe, and eager to construct a make-believe history commiserate with their new-found power. Very similar to Donald Trump’s constant attempts to denigrate Barack Obama - a man he knew was his better.
That is why Albinos delusionally insist that all the original people who invented civilization and modern living were THEM! Ridiculously they insist that they were Ancient Egyptians, Minoan's, Mesopotamian's, Greeks, Romans, etc. To aid in their Racist "Myth Making" Albinos fabricated many "Race" studies, and wrote many Race papers, intended to denigrate their former lords - Blacks. The whole point was to cleanse the minds of Blacks under their power, of any memory of their actual history, and replace it with the history supplied to them by the Albinos. Here is a sample of what the Albinos were up to:
On the Negro's Place in Nature, by James Hunt
Wiki:
James Hunt (1833 – 29 August 1869) was a speech therapist in London, England. In 1863 he established the Anthropological Society of London, which after his death merged with the more established Ethnological Society of London to become the Royal Anthropological Institute.
James Hunt was born in Swanage, Dorset, the son of the speech therapist Thomas Hunt. He bought a doctorate from the University of Giessen in Germany and set up a practice in 1856 in Regent Street, London. He dedicated his first Manual on the subject to Charles Kingsley who spent three weeks with him in 1859. He moved to Hastings where ran residential courses during the summer season with his sister Elizabeth's husband, Rev. Henry F. Rivers. In 1854 he joined the Ethnological Society of London because of his interest in racial differences and from 1859 to 1862 was the honorary secretary.
On the Negro's Place in Nature, by James Hunt
Quote: It is not a little remarkable that the subject I propose to bring before you this evening is one which has never been discussed before a scientific audience in this Metropolis. In France, in America, and in Germany, the physical and mental characters of the Negro have been frequently discussed, and England alone has neglected to pay that attention to the question which its importance demands.
Although I shall dwell chiefly on the physical, mental and moral character of the Negro, I shall, at the same time, not hesitate to make such practical, deductions which appear to be warranted from the facts we now have at hand, and trust that a fair and open discussion of this subject may eventually be the means of removing much of the misconception which appears to prevail on this subject both in the minds of the public, and too frequently in the minds of scientific men. Heretofore, however, it has happened that much human passion has been introduced, not only into public discussions, but especially into the literature of this subject. Even such a generally fair and philosophic writer as Professor Waltz has accused men of science of promulgating scientific views which are practically in favor of the so-called " slavery " of the Confederate States of America. Many other scientific men could be named who have equally been guilty of imputing such unfair and uncharitable motives while, on the other hand, scientific men who are thus accused, retort for instance, exclaims: “How I loathe that hypocrisy which claims the same mental, moral and physical equality for the Negro which the whites possess!" No good can come of discussion conducted in such a spirit. If we wish to discover what is truths' we must give each other credit for scientific honesty, and not impute base or interested motives.
In the first place, I would explain that I understand by the Negro, the dark, woolly-headed African found in the neighborhood of the Gambia, Senegal and Kongo rivers. Africa contains, like every other continent, a large number of different races; and these, having become very much mixed, may be estimated as a whole at about 150 millions, occupying a territory of between 13 and 14 millions of square miles. I shall not enter into any disquisition as to the great diversity of physical informatIon that {B found in different races, but shall simply say that my remarks will be confined to the typical woolly-headed Negro. Not only is there a large amount of mixed blood in Africa, but there are also apparently races of very different physical characters, and in as far as they approach the typical Negro, so far will my remarks apply to them. But I shall exclude entirely from consideration all those who have European, Asiatic, Moorish or Berber Blood in their veins.
The foot is flat and the heel is both flat and long. Burmeister has pointed out the resemblance of the foot and the position of the toes of the Negro to those of the ape. The toes are small, the first separated from the second by a free space. Many observers have noticed the fact that the Negro frequently uses the great toe as a thumb. The knees are rather bent, the calves weak, and the upper part of the thigh rather thin. The upper thighbone of the Negro has not so decided a resemblance to the ape as that of the bushman. He rarely stands quite upright, his short neck and large development of the cervical muscles give great strength to the neck; enabling him to fight, or carry large weights on his head. His shoulders, arms, and legs are all weak in comparison.
The hand is always relatively larger than in the European. The palm is flat, thumb narrow, long, and very weak. The great distinguishing characters of the Negro are the flattened forehead, which is low and compressed. The nose and whole face is flattened, and the Negro thus has a facial angle generally between 70 and 75 degrees, occasionally only 65 degrees. The nasal cavities and the orbits are spacious. The skull is very hard and unusually thick; enabling the Negroes to fight or carry heavy weights on their heads with pleasure, the coronal region is arched, but not so much developed as in the European women. The posterior portion of the skull is increased, however, in proportion to that of the anterior being diminished. But M. Gratiolet has shown that the unequal development of the anterior lobes is not the sole of the psychological inequalities of the human races.
From these researches it appears that in the Negro the growth of the brain is sooner arrested than in the Europeans. This premature union of the bones of the skull may give a clue to much of the mental inferiority which is seen in the Negro race. There can be no doubt that in puberty a great change takes place in relation to physical development; but in the Negro there appears to be an arrested development of the brain, exactly harmonizing with the physical formation. Young Negro children are nearly as intelligent as European children; but the older they grow the less intelligent they become. They exhibit, when young, an animal liveliness for play and tricks, far surpassing the European child. The infant ape's skull resembles more the Negro's head than the aged ape, and thus shows a striking analogy in their craniological development.
The above was of course heavily excerpted to provide just some of the "best parts" of this rather long and tedious Albino nonsense. This is the Albino world of Racial hate and lies that the Buffalo Soldiers found themselves in - did it lead to Self-hatred or Stockholm Syndrome?
Wiki:
Self-hatred (also called self-loathing) refers to an extreme dislike or hatred of oneself, or being angry at or even prejudiced against oneself. The term is also used to designate a dislike or hatred of a group, family, social class, or stereotype to which one belongs and/or has. For instance, "ethnic self-hatred" is the extreme dislike of one's ethnic group or cultural classification. Self-hatred and shame are important factors in some or many mental disorders, especially disorders that involve a perceived defect of oneself. Self-hatred is also a symptom of many personality disorders, including borderline personality disorder, as well as depression.
Or even Stockholm Syndrome?
Wiki:
Stockholm Syndrome
In 1973, Jan-Erik Olsson, a convict on parole, took four employees of the bank (three women and one man) hostage during a failed bank robbery in Kreditbanken, one of the largest banks in Stockholm, Sweden. He negotiated the release from prison of his friend Clark Olofsson to assist him. They held the hostages captive for six days in one of the bank’s vaults, while torturing them with nooses and dynamite. When they were released, none of them would testify against either captor in court; instead they began raising money for their defense.
Stockholm syndrome is a condition that causes hostages to develop a psychological alliance with their captors as a survival strategy during captivity. These feelings, resulting from a bond formed between captor and captives during intimate time spent together, are generally considered irrational in light of the danger or risk endured by the victims. Generally speaking, Stockholm syndrome consists of "strong emotional ties that develop between two persons where one person intermittently harasses, beats, threatens, abuses, or intimidates the other.
Your going to need your reading skills for the next couple of post..
**The History of Heroin, the Albino use of Heroin as a Weapon,
and the American War on Drugs and Blacks.**
c.3400 B.C.
The opium poppy is cultivated in lower Mesopotamia. The Sumerians refer to it as Hul Gil, the 'joy plant.' The Sumerians would soon pass along the plant and its euphoric effects to the Assyrians. The art of poppy-culling would continue from the Assyrians to the Babylonians who in turn would pass their knowledge onto the Egyptians.
c.1300 B.C.
In the capital city of Thebes, Egyptians begin cultivation of opium thebaicum,grown in their famous poppy fields.The opium trade flourishes during the reign of Thutmose IV, Akhenaton and King Tutankhamen. The trade route included the Phoenicians and Minoans who move the profitable item across the Mediterranean Sea into Greece, Carthage, and Europe.
c.1100 B.C.
On the island of Cyprus, the "Peoples of the Sea" craft surgical-quality culling knives to harvest opium, which they would cultivate, trade and smoke before the fall of Troy.
c. 460 B.C.
Hippocrates, "the father of medicine", dismisses the magical attributes of opium but acknowledges its usefulness as a narcotic and styptic in treating internal diseases, diseases of women and epidemics.
330 B.C.
Alexander the Great introduces opium to the people of Persia and India.
A.D. 400
Opium thebaicum, from the Egytpian fields at Thebes, is first introduced to China by Arab traders.
1500
The Portugese, while trading along the East China Sea, initiate the smoking ofopium. The effects were instantaneous as they discovered but it was a practice the Chinese considered barbaric and subversive.
1600's
Residents of Persia and India begin eating and drinking opium mixtures for recreational use.
Portugese merchants carrying cargoes of Indian opium through Macao direct its trade flow into China.
1606
Ships chartered by Elizabeth I are instructed to purchase the finest Indian opium and transport it back to England.
1700
The Dutch export shipments of Indian opium to China and the islands of Southeast Asia; the Dutch introduce the practice of smoking opium in a tobacco pipe to the Chinese.
1729
Chinese emperor, Yung Cheng, issues an edict prohibiting the smoking of opium and its domestic sale, except under license for use as medicine.
1750
The British East India Company assumes control of Bengal and Bihar, opium-growing districts of India. British shipping dominates the opium trade out of Calcutta to China.
1767
The British East India Company's import of opium to China reaches a staggering two thousand chests of opium per year.
1793
The British East India Company establishes a monopoly on the opium trade. All poppy growers in India were forbidden to sell opium to competitor trading companies.
1799
China's emperor, Kia King, bans opium completely, making trade and poppy cultivation illegal.
1800
The British Levant Company purchases nearly half of all of the opium coming out of Smyrna, Turkey strictly for importation to Europe and the United States.
1803
Friedrich Sertuerner of Paderborn, Germany discovers the active ingredient of opium by dissolving it in acid then neutralizing it with ammonia. The result: alkaloids--Principium somniferum or morphine.
1805
A smuggler from Boston, Massachusetts, Charles Cabot, attempts to purchase opium from the British, then smuggle it into China under the auspices of British smugglers.
1812
American John Cushing, under the employ of his uncles' business, James and Thomas H. Perkins Company of Boston, acquires his wealth from smuggling Turkish opium to Canton.
1816
John Jacob Astor of New York City joins the opium smuggling trade. His American Fur Company purchases ten tons of Turkish opium then ships the contraband item to Canton on the Macedonian. Astor would later leave the China opium trade and sell solely to England.
E. Merck & Company of Darmstadt, Germany, begins commercial manufacturing of morphine.
1830
The British dependence on opium for medicinal and recreational use reaches an all time high as 22,000 pounds of opium is imported from Turkey and India.
March 18, 1839
Lin Tse-Hsu, imperial Chinese commissioner in charge of suppressing the opium traffic, orders all foreign traders to surrender their opium. In response, the British send expenditionary warships to the coast of China, beginning The First Opium War.
1840
New Englanders bring 24,000 pounds of opium into the United States. This catches the attention of U.S. Customs which promptly puts a duty fee on the import.
1841
The Chinese are defeated by the British in the First Opium War. Along with paying a large indemnity, Hong Kong is ceded to the British.
1852
The British arrive in lower Burma, importing large quantities of opium from India and selling it through a government-controlled opium monopoly.
1856
The British and French renew their hostilities against China in the Second Opium War. In the aftermath of the struggle, China is forced to pay another indemnity. The importation of opium is legalized.
Opium production increases along the highlands of Southeast Asia.
1874
In San Francisco, smoking opium in the city limits is banned and is confined to neighboring Chinatowns and their opium dens.
1878
Britain passes the Opium Act with hopes of reducing opium consumption. Under the new regulation, the selling of opium is restricted to registered Chinese opium smokers and Indian opium eaters while the Burmese are strictly prohibited from smoking opium.
1886
The British acquire Burma's northeast region, the Shan state. Production and smuggling of opium along the lower region of Burma thrives despite British efforts to maintain a strict monopoly on the opium trade.
1890
U.S. Congress, in its earliest law-enforcement legislation on narcotics, imposes a tax on opium and morphine.
Tabloids owned by William Randolph Hearst publish stories of white women being seduced by Chinese men and their opium to invoke fear of the 'Yellow Peril', disguised as an "anti-drug" campaign.
1895
Heinrich Dreser working for The Bayer Company of Elberfeld, Germany, finds that diluting morphine with acetyls produces a drug without the common morphine side effects. Bayer begins production of diacetylmorphine and coins the name "heroin." Heroin would not be introduced commercially for another three years.
1903
Heroin addiction rises to alarming rates.
1905
U.S. Congress bans opium.
1906
China and England finally enact a treaty restricting the Sino-Indian opium trade.
Several physicians experiment with treatments for heroin addiction. Dr. Alexander Lambert and Charles B. Towns tout their popular cure as the most "advanced, effective and compassionate cure" for heroin addiction. The cure consisted of a 7 day regimen, which included a five day purge of heroin from the addict's system with doses of belladonna delirium.
U.S. Congress passes the Pure Food and Drug Act requiring contents labeling on patent medicines by pharmaceutical companies. As a result, the availabilty of opiates and opiate consumers significantly declines.
1910
After 150 years of failed attempts to rid the country of opium, the Chinese are finally successful in convincing the British to dismantle the India-China opium trade.
Dec. 17, 1914
1925
In the wake of the first federal ban on opium, a thriving black market opens up in New York's Chinatown.
Early 1940's
During World War II, opium trade routes are blocked and the flow of opium from India and Persia is cut off. Fearful of losing their opium monopoly, the French encourage Hmong farmers to expand their opium production.
1948-1972
Corsican gangsters dominate the U.S. heroin market through their connection with Mafia drug distributors. After refining the raw Turkish opium in Marseille laboratories, the heroin is made easily available for purchase by junkies on New York City streets.
1950's
U.S. efforts to contain the spread of Communism in Asia involves forging alliances with tribes and warlords inhabiting the areas of the Golden Triangle, (an expanse covering Laos, Thailand and Burma), thus providing accessibility and protection along the southeast border of China. In order to maintain their relationship with the warlords while continuing to fund the struggle against communism, the U.S. and France supply the drug warlords and their armies with ammunition, arms and air transport for the production and sale of opium. The result: an explosion in the availability and illegal flow of heroin into the United States and into the hands of drug dealers and addicts.
1965-1970
U.S. involvement in Vietnam is blamed for the surge in illegal heroin being smuggled into the States. To aid U.S. allies, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) sets up a charter airline, Air America, to transport raw opium from Burma and Laos. As well, some of the opium would be transported to Marseille by Corsican gangsters to be refined into heroin and shipped to the U.S via the French connection. The number of heroin addicts in the U.S. reaches an estimated 750,000.
History of Heroin in America
Opiates were popular in the United States throughout the 19th century, particularly among upper- and middle-class women who were prescribed tonics and elixirs containing opium to cure “female problems.” The practice of smoking opium was introduced in the 1850s and 1860s by Chinese laborers who came to the U.S. to work on railroads. The opiate-based drug morphine was created in 1803 and widely used during the American Civil War as an injectable pain reliever, leading to the first wave of morphine addiction. Interestingly, the drug heroin was created in 1895 and marketed three years later as a potential solution to the increasing problem of morphine addiction. The charitable St. James Society even mailed free samples of heroin to morphine addicts as part of a campaign against morphine addiction. As a result, heroin addiction began to take root and grow. The second major wave of opiate addiction in America began in the 1930s and 1940s Harlem jazz scene, and again during the Beatnik subculture of the 1950s. During the Vietnam War, heroin abuse became rampant among U.S. soldiers stationed abroad, with an estimated 10% to 15% of servicemen addicted to heroin. Heroin users began smoking and snorting heroin after improvements were made in the purity of street heroin in the 1980s and 1990s. As a result, heroin usage rose significantly in the 1990s.
The War on Drugs
From: SmartDrugPolicy - 2017
In 1969, Richard M. Nixon declared that drugs were America’s number one enemy as his administration officially launched what would be known as the U.S. ‘war on drugs’.
As heroin use was on the rise, primarily among returning Vietnam War veterans, the Nixon administration focused most of its resources on that particular narcotic, especially to reduce crime linked to drug use. On the treatment side, Nixon created the first federal methadone program (see Treating Heroin Addiction), and dedicated 75% of the total drug budget to treatment and rehabilitation. In 1970, the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 was created and became the main legal foundation for drug regulation in the U.S. It consolidated all previous laws regulating the production and distribution of narcotics, stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, and any other chemical substance considered to have a potential for abuse. To enforce the Act, a new agency was created in 1973, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), into which the former BNDD was merged.
Rockefeller Drug Laws
(Put the ******* in Jail)!
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Rockefeller Drug Laws are the statutes dealing with the sale and possession of "narcotic" drugs in the New York State Penal Law. The laws are named after Nelson Rockefeller, who was the state's governor at the time the laws were adopted. Rockefeller had previously backed drug rehabilitation, job training and housing as strategies, having seen drugs as a social problem rather a criminal one, but did an about-face during a period of mounting national anxiety about drug use and crime. Rockefeller, a staunch supporter of the bill containing the laws, had Presidential ambitions and so wanted to raise his national posture by being "tough on crime." If this strategy worked, he would no longer be seen as too liberal to be elected. He signed it on May 8, 1973.
Under the Rockefeller drug laws, the penalty for selling two ounces (57 g) or more of heroin, morphine, "raw or prepared opium," cocaine, or cannabis or possessing four ounces (113 g) or more of the same substances, was a minimum of 15 years to life in prison, and a maximum of 25 years to life in prison. The original legislation also mandated the same penalty for committing a violent crime while under the influence of the same drugs, but this provision was subsequently omitted from the bill and was not part of the legislation Rockefeller ultimately signed. The section of the laws applying to marijuana was repealed in 1977, under the Democratic Governor Hugh Carey.
The adoption of the Rockefeller drug laws gave New York State the distinction of having the toughest laws of its kind in the entire United States — an approach soon imitated by the state of Michigan, which, in 1978, enacted a "650-Lifer Law," which called for life imprisonment, without the possibility of parole for the sale, manufacture, or possession of at least 650 grams (1.43 lb) of cocaine or any Schedule I or Schedule II opiate.
"They're animals" (Blacks).
Quote fron: Giuseppe Zaluchi head of Detroit's Zaluchi family
"I also don't believe in drugs. For years I paid my people extra so they wouldn't do that kind of business. Somebody comes to them and says, «I have powders; if you put up three, four thousand dollar investment - we can make fifty thousand distributing.» So they can't resist. I want to control it as a business, to keep it respectable. I don't want it near schools - I don't want it sold to children! That's an infamia. In my city, we would keep the traffic in the dark people - the colored. They're animals anyway, so let them lose their souls."
American Journal of Public Health - 1982
Recent Trends in Fatal Poisoning by Opiates In the United States
Abstract: Deaths in the United States classified as unintentional poisoning by drugs and medicaments fell from 14.7 per million population in 1975 to 8.8 in 1978, a 40 per cent decrease. Seventy-three per cent of this drop was attributable to a reduction in deaths coded to opiates and intravenous narcotism. These two categories accounted for 38 per cent of all unintentional drug deaths in 1975 but only 15 per cent in 1978. There was no simultaneous increase in other drug-related deaths, including suicides, to account for the reduction in deaths coded to opiates. The highest mortality rates and the greatest variation in mortality during 1970-78 occurred in 20-29 year old non-White males. Racial and sex differences in opiate poisoning mortality, notable early in the decade, were greatly reduced by 1978 due to a relatively larger decline in mortality of males and non-Whites. Time trends in mortality from opiate poisoning appear to coincide with variations in the amount of heroin smuggled into the country.
During the nine years studied, there were 67,851 deaths in the United States ascribed to poisoning by drugs, ofwhich 22,826 (34 per cent) were classified as unintentional (Table 1). The annual number of deaths from unintentional poisoning by drugs and medicaments rose from 2,505 in 1970 to a high of3,132 in 1975, then dropped to 1,906 in 1978. Between 1975 and 1978, the mortality rate per million population declined by 40 per cent, from 14.7 to 8.8. During the same three-year period, the rates for drug poisoning deaths coded as suicidal or of undetermined intent declined by 10 per cent and 20 per cent, respectively, and "drug dependence" deaths decreased by 59 per cent. For all categories of drug poisoning deaths combined, deaths per million population increased by 8 per cent from 1970-1975, then decreased by 30 per cent, from a rate of 39.9 in 1975 to 27.8 in 1978 (Table
1). Unintentional drug poisoning deaths were further analyzed by host characteristics and by specific poisoning agent.
For all ages combined, mortality was twice as high in non-White males as in White males, and 1.5 times as high in non-White females as in White females (Table 1). Among 20-29 year old Whites, no decline in mortality occurred until the second halfof the decade, and then it was limited to males (Figure 2). In non-Whites, on the other hand, the decrease began in the first half of the decade and reversed temporarily in 1974-1975. The drop in mortality was greater among non-White males than among non-White females.
TODAY!
(Under the heading: "What goes around - Comes around")
**The History of Heroin, the Albino use of Heroin as a Weapon,
and the American War on Drugs and Blacks.**
c.3400 B.C.
The opium poppy is cultivated in lower Mesopotamia. The Sumerians refer to it as Hul Gil, the 'joy plant.' The Sumerians would soon pass along the plant and its euphoric effects to the Assyrians. The art of poppy-culling would continue from the Assyrians to the Babylonians who in turn would pass their knowledge onto the Egyptians.
c.1300 B.C.
In the capital city of Thebes, Egyptians begin cultivation of opium thebaicum,grown in their famous poppy fields.The opium trade flourishes during the reign of Thutmose IV, Akhenaton and King Tutankhamen. The trade route included the Phoenicians and Minoans who move the profitable item across the Mediterranean Sea into Greece, Carthage, and Europe.
c.1100 B.C.
On the island of Cyprus, the "Peoples of the Sea" craft surgical-quality culling knives to harvest opium, which they would cultivate, trade and smoke before the fall of Troy.
c. 460 B.C.
Hippocrates, "the father of medicine", dismisses the magical attributes of opium but acknowledges its usefulness as a narcotic and styptic in treating internal diseases, diseases of women and epidemics.
330 B.C.
Alexander the Great introduces opium to the people of Persia and India.
A.D. 400
Opium thebaicum, from the Egytpian fields at Thebes, is first introduced to China by Arab traders.
1500
The Portugese, while trading along the East China Sea, initiate the smoking ofopium. The effects were instantaneous as they discovered but it was a practice the Chinese considered barbaric and subversive.
1600's
Residents of Persia and India begin eating and drinking opium mixtures for recreational use.
Portugese merchants carrying cargoes of Indian opium through Macao direct its trade flow into China.
1606
Ships chartered by Elizabeth I are instructed to purchase the finest Indian opium and transport it back to England.
1700
The Dutch export shipments of Indian opium to China and the islands of Southeast Asia; the Dutch introduce the practice of smoking opium in a tobacco pipe to the Chinese.
1729
Chinese emperor, Yung Cheng, issues an edict prohibiting the smoking of opium and its domestic sale, except under license for use as medicine.
1750
The British East India Company assumes control of Bengal and Bihar, opium-growing districts of India. British shipping dominates the opium trade out of Calcutta to China.
1767
The British East India Company's import of opium to China reaches a staggering two thousand chests of opium per year.
1793
The British East India Company establishes a monopoly on the opium trade. All poppy growers in India were forbidden to sell opium to competitor trading companies.
1799
China's emperor, Kia King, bans opium completely, making trade and poppy cultivation illegal.
1800
The British Levant Company purchases nearly half of all of the opium coming out of Smyrna, Turkey strictly for importation to Europe and the United States.
1803
Friedrich Sertuerner of Paderborn, Germany discovers the active ingredient of opium by dissolving it in acid then neutralizing it with ammonia. The result: alkaloids--Principium somniferum or morphine.
1805
A smuggler from Boston, Massachusetts, Charles Cabot, attempts to purchase opium from the British, then smuggle it into China under the auspices of British smugglers.
1812
American John Cushing, under the employ of his uncles' business, James and Thomas H. Perkins Company of Boston, acquires his wealth from smuggling Turkish opium to Canton.
1816
John Jacob Astor of New York City joins the opium smuggling trade. His American Fur Company purchases ten tons of Turkish opium then ships the contraband item to Canton on the Macedonian. Astor would later leave the China opium trade and sell solely to England.
E. Merck & Company of Darmstadt, Germany, begins commercial manufacturing of morphine.
1830
The British dependence on opium for medicinal and recreational use reaches an all time high as 22,000 pounds of opium is imported from Turkey and India.
March 18, 1839
Lin Tse-Hsu, imperial Chinese commissioner in charge of suppressing the opium traffic, orders all foreign traders to surrender their opium. In response, the British send expenditionary warships to the coast of China, beginning The First Opium War.
1840
New Englanders bring 24,000 pounds of opium into the United States. This catches the attention of U.S. Customs which promptly puts a duty fee on the import.
1841
The Chinese are defeated by the British in the First Opium War. Along with paying a large indemnity, Hong Kong is ceded to the British.
1852
The British arrive in lower Burma, importing large quantities of opium from India and selling it through a government-controlled opium monopoly.
1856
The British and French renew their hostilities against China in the Second Opium War. In the aftermath of the struggle, China is forced to pay another indemnity. The importation of opium is legalized.
Opium production increases along the highlands of Southeast Asia.
1874
In San Francisco, smoking opium in the city limits is banned and is confined to neighboring Chinatowns and their opium dens.
1878
Britain passes the Opium Act with hopes of reducing opium consumption. Under the new regulation, the selling of opium is restricted to registered Chinese opium smokers and Indian opium eaters while the Burmese are strictly prohibited from smoking opium.
1886
The British acquire Burma's northeast region, the Shan state. Production and smuggling of opium along the lower region of Burma thrives despite British efforts to maintain a strict monopoly on the opium trade.
1890
U.S. Congress, in its earliest law-enforcement legislation on narcotics, imposes a tax on opium and morphine.
Tabloids owned by William Randolph Hearst publish stories of white women being seduced by Chinese men and their opium to invoke fear of the 'Yellow Peril', disguised as an "anti-drug" campaign.
1895
Heinrich Dreser working for The Bayer Company of Elberfeld, Germany, finds that diluting morphine with acetyls produces a drug without the common morphine side effects. Bayer begins production of diacetylmorphine and coins the name "heroin." Heroin would not be introduced commercially for another three years.
1903
Heroin addiction rises to alarming rates.
1905
U.S. Congress bans opium.
1906
China and England finally enact a treaty restricting the Sino-Indian opium trade.
Several physicians experiment with treatments for heroin addiction. Dr. Alexander Lambert and Charles B. Towns tout their popular cure as the most "advanced, effective and compassionate cure" for heroin addiction. The cure consisted of a 7 day regimen, which included a five day purge of heroin from the addict's system with doses of belladonna delirium.
U.S. Congress passes the Pure Food and Drug Act requiring contents labeling on patent medicines by pharmaceutical companies. As a result, the availabilty of opiates and opiate consumers significantly declines.
1910
After 150 years of failed attempts to rid the country of opium, the Chinese are finally successful in convincing the British to dismantle the India-China opium trade.
Dec. 17, 1914
1925
In the wake of the first federal ban on opium, a thriving black market opens up in New York's Chinatown.
Early 1940's
During World War II, opium trade routes are blocked and the flow of opium from India and Persia is cut off. Fearful of losing their opium monopoly, the French encourage Hmong farmers to expand their opium production.
1948-1972
Corsican gangsters dominate the U.S. heroin market through their connection with Mafia drug distributors. After refining the raw Turkish opium in Marseille laboratories, the heroin is made easily available for purchase by junkies on New York City streets.
1950's
U.S. efforts to contain the spread of Communism in Asia involves forging alliances with tribes and warlords inhabiting the areas of the Golden Triangle, (an expanse covering Laos, Thailand and Burma), thus providing accessibility and protection along the southeast border of China. In order to maintain their relationship with the warlords while continuing to fund the struggle against communism, the U.S. and France supply the drug warlords and their armies with ammunition, arms and air transport for the production and sale of opium. The result: an explosion in the availability and illegal flow of heroin into the United States and into the hands of drug dealers and addicts.
1965-1970
U.S. involvement in Vietnam is blamed for the surge in illegal heroin being smuggled into the States. To aid U.S. allies, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) sets up a charter airline, Air America, to transport raw opium from Burma and Laos. As well, some of the opium would be transported to Marseille by Corsican gangsters to be refined into heroin and shipped to the U.S via the French connection. The number of heroin addicts in the U.S. reaches an estimated 750,000.
History of Heroin in America
Opiates were popular in the United States throughout the 19th century, particularly among upper- and middle-class women who were prescribed tonics and elixirs containing opium to cure “female problems.” The practice of smoking opium was introduced in the 1850s and 1860s by Chinese laborers who came to the U.S. to work on railroads. The opiate-based drug morphine was created in 1803 and widely used during the American Civil War as an injectable pain reliever, leading to the first wave of morphine addiction. Interestingly, the drug heroin was created in 1895 and marketed three years later as a potential solution to the increasing problem of morphine addiction. The charitable St. James Society even mailed free samples of heroin to morphine addicts as part of a campaign against morphine addiction. As a result, heroin addiction began to take root and grow. The second major wave of opiate addiction in America began in the 1930s and 1940s Harlem jazz scene, and again during the Beatnik subculture of the 1950s. During the Vietnam War, heroin abuse became rampant among U.S. soldiers stationed abroad, with an estimated 10% to 15% of servicemen addicted to heroin. Heroin users began smoking and snorting heroin after improvements were made in the purity of street heroin in the 1980s and 1990s. As a result, heroin usage rose significantly in the 1990s.
The War on Drugs
From: SmartDrugPolicy - 2017
In 1969, Richard M. Nixon declared that drugs were America’s number one enemy as his administration officially launched what would be known as the U.S. ‘war on drugs’.
As heroin use was on the rise, primarily among returning Vietnam War veterans, the Nixon administration focused most of its resources on that particular narcotic, especially to reduce crime linked to drug use. On the treatment side, Nixon created the first federal methadone program (see Treating Heroin Addiction), and dedicated 75% of the total drug budget to treatment and rehabilitation. In 1970, the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 was created and became the main legal foundation for drug regulation in the U.S. It consolidated all previous laws regulating the production and distribution of narcotics, stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, and any other chemical substance considered to have a potential for abuse. To enforce the Act, a new agency was created in 1973, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), into which the former BNDD was merged.
Rockefeller Drug Laws
(Put the ******* in Jail)!
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Rockefeller Drug Laws are the statutes dealing with the sale and possession of "narcotic" drugs in the New York State Penal Law. The laws are named after Nelson Rockefeller, who was the state's governor at the time the laws were adopted. Rockefeller had previously backed drug rehabilitation, job training and housing as strategies, having seen drugs as a social problem rather a criminal one, but did an about-face during a period of mounting national anxiety about drug use and crime. Rockefeller, a staunch supporter of the bill containing the laws, had Presidential ambitions and so wanted to raise his national posture by being "tough on crime." If this strategy worked, he would no longer be seen as too liberal to be elected. He signed it on May 8, 1973.
Under the Rockefeller drug laws, the penalty for selling two ounces (57 g) or more of heroin, morphine, "raw or prepared opium," cocaine, or cannabis or possessing four ounces (113 g) or more of the same substances, was a minimum of 15 years to life in prison, and a maximum of 25 years to life in prison. The original legislation also mandated the same penalty for committing a violent crime while under the influence of the same drugs, but this provision was subsequently omitted from the bill and was not part of the legislation Rockefeller ultimately signed. The section of the laws applying to marijuana was repealed in 1977, under the Democratic Governor Hugh Carey.
The adoption of the Rockefeller drug laws gave New York State the distinction of having the toughest laws of its kind in the entire United States — an approach soon imitated by the state of Michigan, which, in 1978, enacted a "650-Lifer Law," which called for life imprisonment, without the possibility of parole for the sale, manufacture, or possession of at least 650 grams (1.43 lb) of cocaine or any Schedule I or Schedule II opiate.
"They're animals" (Blacks).
Quote from the movie "The Godfather" 1972
Quote fron: Giuseppe Zaluchi head of Detroit's Zaluchi family
"I also don't believe in drugs. For years I paid my people extra so they wouldn't do that kind of business. Somebody comes to them and says, «I have powders; if you put up three, four thousand dollar investment - we can make fifty thousand distributing.» So they can't resist. I want to control it as a business, to keep it respectable. I don't want it near schools - I don't want it sold to children! That's an infamia. In my city, we would keep the traffic in the dark people - the colored. They're animals anyway, so let them lose their souls."
American Journal of Public Health - 1982
Recent Trends in Fatal Poisoning by Opiates In the United States
by JUDITH S. SAMKOFF, SCM, and SUSAN P. BAKER, MPH
Abstract: Deaths in the United States classified as unintentional poisoning by drugs and medicaments fell from 14.7 per million population in 1975 to 8.8 in 1978, a 40 per cent decrease. Seventy-three per cent of this drop was attributable to a reduction in deaths coded to opiates and intravenous narcotism. These two categories accounted for 38 per cent of all unintentional drug deaths in 1975 but only 15 per cent in 1978. There was no simultaneous increase in other drug-related deaths, including suicides, to account for the reduction in deaths coded to opiates. The highest mortality rates and the greatest variation in mortality during 1970-78 occurred in 20-29 year old non-White males. Racial and sex differences in opiate poisoning mortality, notable early in the decade, were greatly reduced by 1978 due to a relatively larger decline in mortality of males and non-Whites. Time trends in mortality from opiate poisoning appear to coincide with variations in the amount of heroin smuggled into the country.
During the nine years studied, there were 67,851 deaths in the United States ascribed to poisoning by drugs, ofwhich 22,826 (34 per cent) were classified as unintentional (Table 1). The annual number of deaths from unintentional poisoning by drugs and medicaments rose from 2,505 in 1970 to a high of3,132 in 1975, then dropped to 1,906 in 1978. Between 1975 and 1978, the mortality rate per million population declined by 40 per cent, from 14.7 to 8.8. During the same three-year period, the rates for drug poisoning deaths coded as suicidal or of undetermined intent declined by 10 per cent and 20 per cent, respectively, and "drug dependence" deaths decreased by 59 per cent. For all categories of drug poisoning deaths combined, deaths per million population increased by 8 per cent from 1970-1975, then decreased by 30 per cent, from a rate of 39.9 in 1975 to 27.8 in 1978 (Table
1). Unintentional drug poisoning deaths were further analyzed by host characteristics and by specific poisoning agent.
For all ages combined, mortality was twice as high in non-White males as in White males, and 1.5 times as high in non-White females as in White females (Table 1). Among 20-29 year old Whites, no decline in mortality occurred until the second halfof the decade, and then it was limited to males (Figure 2). In non-Whites, on the other hand, the decrease began in the first half of the decade and reversed temporarily in 1974-1975. The drop in mortality was greater among non-White males than among non-White females.
TODAY!
(Under the heading: "What goes around - Comes around")
DODGE THE HIJACK!!!! At times repetition is our best friend
American definition 1828
https://www.bgol.us/forum/javascript:void(0)
Image: wikipedia.org
1828.sorabji.com > Webster's 1828 English Dictionary. AMER'ICAN, a. Pertaining to America. AMER'ICAN, n. A **native of America; originally applied to the aboriginals, or copper-colored races**, found here by the Europeans; but now applied to the descendants of Europeans born in America.
American - Webster's 1828 Dictionary Definition
The name of the game is to keep our people in a deep sleep state of mind, misinformed, divided, and distracted!! They will spend billions of dollars a year to pull off that agenda!! They will use every gatekeeper/sellout on the payroll, also to do that!! The mission is too, keep our people from waking the fuck up and wanting all their shit back!!
American definition 1828
https://www.bgol.us/forum/javascript:void(0)
Image: wikipedia.org
1828.sorabji.com > Webster's 1828 English Dictionary. AMER'ICAN, a. Pertaining to America. AMER'ICAN, n. A **native of America; originally applied to the aboriginals, or copper-colored races**, found here by the Europeans; but now applied to the descendants of Europeans born in America.
American - Webster's 1828 Dictionary Definition
The name of the game is to keep our people in a deep sleep state of mind, misinformed, divided, and distracted!! They will spend billions of dollars a year to pull off that agenda!! They will use every gatekeeper/sellout on the payroll, also to do that!! The mission is too, keep our people from waking the fuck up and wanting all their shit back!!
Our history has been told to us in reverse and a straight up lie!! The indoctrination centers(aka schools), government, television and all form of media refuse to even mention the millions of white slave that were in this nation!! But they dont have a problem saying every copper color person was brought here as slaves and thats where the lie begins!!
The first humans in North America were also Negroid Blacks
National Park Service (NPS), U.S. Department of the Interior, continued: Report on the Osteological Assessment of the "Kennewick Man" Skeleton by Joseph F. Powell and Jerome C. Rose, March 1, 1999. Quote: The Kennewick skeleton - the most craniometrically similar samples appeared to be those from the south Pacific and Polynesia.
WE HAVE PICTURES OF WHAT THE FIRST AMERICANS LOOKED LIKE
Ancient Blacks of SOUTH AMERICA
THE INCA..
Ancient Blacks of CENTRAL AMERICA
Ancient Blacks of the CARIBBEAN
Ancient Blacks of NORTH AMERICA
WESTERN UNITED STATES - California
CENTRAL UNITED STATES - Wisconsin
EASTERN UNITED STATES - New York
Modern era descendants of Ancient Blacks of the United States
Pure Blood Black Indian Pure Blood Mongol Indian
As we can clearly see, these famous Indian Chiefs, were in fact Albino Mulattoes.
Using the "FULL" 308,005 number for the United States ONLY (because we had no way to break the number up), we ran a "Population Replacement Level" algorithm (taking into account the documented condition of Slaves). The result told us (using a bigger number than was real), that the population of Blacks in the United States, who are the descendants of African Slaves, in 2018 should be about 288,000 people, (their poor nutrition, heavy workload and short lifespan would cause their numbers to decline). 288,000 IS A TINY FRACTION OF THE BLACK POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES!
Clearly the Black population of the United States is overwhelmingly Expelled Black Europeans and
"REAL" American Indians. Unfortunately, at this time we have no way of determining proportions.
National Park Service (NPS), U.S. Department of the Interior, continued: Report on the Osteological Assessment of the "Kennewick Man" Skeleton by Joseph F. Powell and Jerome C. Rose, March 1, 1999. Quote: The Kennewick skeleton - the most craniometrically similar samples appeared to be those from the south Pacific and Polynesia.
WE HAVE PICTURES OF WHAT THE FIRST AMERICANS LOOKED LIKE
Courtesy of the First European Explorers who often brought along artists
to make pictures of the new People, Plants, and Animals, they encountered for publication when they returned to Europe.
to make pictures of the new People, Plants, and Animals, they encountered for publication when they returned to Europe.
Ancient Blacks of SOUTH AMERICA
THE INCA..
Ancient Blacks of CENTRAL AMERICA
Ancient Blacks of the CARIBBEAN
Ancient Blacks of NORTH AMERICA
WESTERN UNITED STATES - California
CENTRAL UNITED STATES - Wisconsin
EASTERN UNITED STATES - New York
Modern era descendants of Ancient Blacks of the United States
Pure Blood Black Indian Pure Blood Mongol Indian
As we can clearly see, these famous Indian Chiefs, were in fact Albino Mulattoes.
The Emory University Voyages database is a World-Wide collaboration of Universities and Scientists researching the Slave Trade.
The fruits of their labor is housed in a database in Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.
After 40 years of collaborative research, the group determined that only 308,005 Africans were landed in Mexico, The United States, and Canada.
The fruits of their labor is housed in a database in Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.
After 40 years of collaborative research, the group determined that only 308,005 Africans were landed in Mexico, The United States, and Canada.
Using the "FULL" 308,005 number for the United States ONLY (because we had no way to break the number up), we ran a "Population Replacement Level" algorithm (taking into account the documented condition of Slaves). The result told us (using a bigger number than was real), that the population of Blacks in the United States, who are the descendants of African Slaves, in 2018 should be about 288,000 people, (their poor nutrition, heavy workload and short lifespan would cause their numbers to decline). 288,000 IS A TINY FRACTION OF THE BLACK POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES!
Clearly the Black population of the United States is overwhelmingly Expelled Black Europeans and
"REAL" American Indians. Unfortunately, at this time we have no way of determining proportions.
Hunting North American Indians in Barbados
Patricia Penn Hilden
University of California, Berkeley
May, 2002
Currently Professor Emerita - Ethnic Studies Department.
I visited Kamau Brathwaite in Barbados and he took me to look for Indians, in this case, the Arawaks, who had "disappeared" almost immediately after the first contact with Europeans, their diseases and their guns. We sought a site around a point at Pico. Brathwaite has written of this place, in Barabajan Poems.
"Now, final, Bathsheba. But we must include the whole wild Maroon coast from RiverBay right round to Pico & the miracle of Cove the ancient Amerindian religious settlement, through Cattlewash to Martin's Bay and congoRock & Consetts in the distance..."1
We didn't find Pico that day, though I have been there since. It remains a sacred place, despite the depredations of artifact-hungry archaeologists, who have lifted as much as possible of the indigenous material history of the island and placed it inside the post-independence Barbados Museum, where it lies in a special room designated "prehistory", producing a "heritage" for contemporary Barbadians in a manner familiar in North America.
But despite this assignment of Arawaks to a "pre-European, pre-African past", I continued to find Indians in Barbados. I kept seeing "Indian" place names, hearing "Indian" sounds. I knew, of course, that Indian slaves had come from South America and from the Mexican coast. But I knew also that many thousands of North America's indigenous peoples had been captured and sold into slavery. In fact, near the end of the 17th century, the Wampanoag leader, Metacomet, known to the English as King Philip, had warned New England's tribal people: "these people from the unknown world will cut down our groves, spoil our hunting and planting grounds, and drive us and our children from the graves of our parents and our council fires, and enslave our women and children."2 I knew that tribal people had worked across the colonies, enslaved in households and workshops, on farms and in fisheries. I knew, too, that Indian slaves worked side by side with African slaves, constituting 1/3 of the slaves in early 18th century South Carolina, for example. Moreover, a handful of historians, Almon Lauber in 1913, followed by Caroline Foreman (1943) and Jack Forbes (1993), had argued that the trade in North American Indian slaves did not limit itself to the North American colonies or even to the trade between America and Europe. So I began to wonder if some North American Indians had not formed part of the slave population in Barbados and thus possibly provided the sources for the place names - "Indian Pond," "Indian Ground," "Indian Corner" - that dot the Barbados landscape. My quest had begun.
I started in the National Archives of Barbados, looking first, rather randomly, through late 17th century records. I quickly discovered that all the myriad - and hopeless - efforts to regulate and control slave rebellion referred consistently to "African and other slaves". But I knew that Indian slaves had also been brought from Guyana and from Venezuela, so these could well have been the "others" referred to. Then I came across the following act, dated June 1676:
"Act to Prohibit the Bringing of Indian Slaves to this Island"
"This Act is passed to prevent the bringing of Indian slaves and as well to send away and transport those already brought to this island from New England and the adjacent colonies, being thought a people of too subtle, bloody and dangerous inclination to be and remain here....."
So there I had it: clear evidence that North America Indian people had indeed worked in Barbados's sugar plantation world. I then took up Richard Hall's Acts Passed in the Island of Barbados from 1643-1762.3 Here, too, were the tantalizing suggestions hidden in the language of more efforts to halt or prevent rebellion. I have time to read only a few:
27 October 1692: "An Act for the encouragement of all Negroes and other slaves that shall discover any conspiracy..."
----------------------: "An Act for prohibiting sale of rum or other strong liquor to any Negro or other Slave..."
----------------------: "An Act for the encouragement of such Negroes and other slaves that shall behave themselves courageously against the enemy in time of invasions (manumitted if two white men proved that they killed an enemy)..."
And even more specific wording:
6 January 1708: "An Act to prevent the vessels that trade here, to and from Martinico or elsewhere, from carrying off any Negro, Indian, or Mulattoe slaves...."
11 November 1731: "Act for amending an Act...entitled 'Act for the Governing of Negroes and for providing a proper maintenance and support for such Negroes, Indians, or Mulattoes as hereafter shall be manumitted or set free...."
Then a diversion. I encountered the only person who had then written about Indian slavery in Barbados, Jerome Handler. In 1968 he had written about the 1676 law but, knowing nothing of the history of North American Indian slavery, had reached different conclusions. Handler argued that North American natives formed only a minuscule, and therefore insignificant, number of Barbadian slaves. All the geographical references to "Indians", he insisted, referred only to Caribs or Arawaks, or to Indians brought from South America or the other Caribbean islands. "By the end of the first few decades of the eighteenth century," Handler wrote, there are few traces of [North American Indians] existing as a distinctive sub-cultural group."4
But "traces," I knew, are more significant than Handler allowed. Stubbornly, I went on looking.
There were words, and here are a few:
At the beginning of the 18th century, in a South Carolina peopled by Indians, Africans, and Europeans, where Charleston formed the heart of the bustling North American-Caribbean slave trade, "mustee" meant people born of all three. In 1770, another word. In Scotland a Society of Gentlemen offered this definition of "mulatto" in their Encyclopedia Britannica: or a Dictionary of Arts and Sciences: "Mulatto: a name given in the Indies to those who are begotten by a Negro man on an Indian woman, or an Indian man on a Negro woman."5
At the same time, North American colonial history was replete with references to Indians captured and sold into the slave trade, references often riddled with stereotypes born, as we shall see below, from the first moments of African Indian slavery. James Axtell, a noted scholar of the colonial era, offered a typical version of events: "The English incited 'civil' war between the tribes....[then] rewarded one side for producing Indian slaves who were then sold to the West Indies, often for more biddable black slaves."6 Axtell's absurd assertion, that "black slaves" were more desirable because more tractable, is repeated across United States history. Here is Yasuhide Kawashima, writing of Pequot warriors captured after escaping the Puritans' genocidal attempt to exterminate their people in the 1630s.7 After capture, they were "sold to the West Indies in exchange for more docile Blacks who became the first Negro slaves in New England." There are others like these two, purveying the same general idea, though with varying degrees of bigotry.
How did this stereotype of willing Black slaves and rebellious Indian slaves arise? Mason Wade offers a clue: "The French...at Biloxi and New Orleans attempted to use Indian slaves to work the tobacco plantations but these ran away and it was decided to import Blacks from the French West Indies."8
Of course. Indians could run away - to their own tribes, to other Indians, to escaped Black slaves in the many maroon communities that soon grew up wherever there was African slavery. So long as they were home, Indians knew where they were - much better than any European, as the records of Indian rescues of witless Europeans attest. Rather than trading boatloads of rebellious Indians for cargoes of "biddable" Africans, it is surely more likely that the English - in New England, Virginia, Barbados, and elsewhere - rounded up and exported any leaders or fomenters of rebellions, whether African or Indian. Removed from whatever place and community they knew, they were perhaps more easily subdued, more easily reduced to a state of hopeless exhaustion characteristic of any dislocated, enslaved peoples. (But it should be reiterated here that the laws of the Barbados Assembly testify eloquently to the constancy with which enslaved peoples continued to rebel, to run.)
Still, some more recent histories take a different view. Jill Lepore's In the Name of War, which narrates the Europeans' version of King Philip's War, takes note of the exchange of African and Indian slaves without characterizing either as "tractable" or "biddable." Indeed, she links Nathaniel Saltonstall's Continuation of the State of New-England, together with an Account of the Intended Rebellion of the Negroes in the Barbados, published in London in 1676, to the simultaneous revolt of New England Indians. "Terrified English colonists in Barbadoes believed that the Africans had 'intended to murther all the white people there,' just as panicked English colonists in New England feared that the Indians had 'risen almost round the countrey.'" She concludes, "the parallels between the two uprisings were uncanny and profoundly disquieting." Moreover, Governor Berkeley of Virginia complained in that same year that "the New England Indian infection had spread." And Barbados's panicky governor, Jonathan Atkins, had sent a similar warning to London shortly before: "the ships from New England still bring advice of burning, killing, and destroying daily done by the Indians and the infection extends as far as Maryland and Virginia."9
So there is some hope for the overturning of this canard. Still, this stereotype, once spread through the colonies, continued for a long time to "justify" the importation of vast numbers of Africans to "replace" the "disappearing" Indians who were, of course, being sold for profit to the Caribbean. However scarce, Indians continued to be captured and sold to Barbados. After the 1670 founding of Charlestown by Sir John Colleton and his fellow Barbadians, dozens more landless Barbadians flocked to the area where they quickly replicated Barbados economic and social practices. Anthony MacFarlane tells us, "there was...an ominous sign that [Carolina] would eventually follow [Barbados's] path, in that the settlers took Indians as slaves, both for their own use and for export to the West Indies."10 As commodities on the slave market, Indians were quite valuable. In neighboring Virginia in that era, "a child was worth more than her weight in deerskins; a single adult slave was equal in value to the leather produced in 2 years of hunting...By the latter half of the 17th century, if not before," Joel Martin reports, "slavery was big business in Virginia, an important part of the English trading regime."11
Marking the historical moments when the British sold captive Indians into the Caribbean slave trade is possible. Every single rebellion against the invaders, beginning with the first organized resistence to the Virginians at the beginning of the 17th century and continuing through the Pequot genocide (1630s), and Metacom's Rebellion (1675-76), produced Indian slaves for the Caribbean trade. The slave trade was extensive. There is room here for only a few examples. The Carolinians waged a long struggle with Spain in Florida, the fruits of which were often captive Indians. Between 1702 and 1707, thousands of missionized Indians - already trained into docility and servitude - were sold into the Caribbean. The next year, Englishmen in the Carolinas seized between 10,000 and 12,000 more Christianized Indians and quickly dispatched them to slave islands in the West Indies. The Tuscaroras and Yamassees were so afflicted by these English colonial practices that both nations went to war to try to stop it. Both paid a heavy price, though the Tuscaroras survived. When they inevitably lost their 1711 war, the entire surviving population managed to flee north where they found refuge with the five nations of the powerful Iroquois Confederacy, ultimately surviving as the sixth nation of a confederation that continues today. The Yamassees, some of whom were part of the missionized Indians captured earlier, waged a long war against this slave trade, a war that lasted from 1715-28. They paid the ultimate price, their defeat signaling the virtual disappearance of the Yamassee nation though some survivors fled to other nations or to one of the hundreds of maroon communities across southeastern North America. A few years later, the defeat of the great pan-Indian rebellion of 1736-66, led by the famous war chief Pontiac, sent still more Indians on their way to Caribbean cane houses and cane fields. And from all the other invaded regions of North America came more rebellions, more slaves.
All the years between these markers, all over North America, slave raids and violent conflict produced humans for sale. The "Plantation Records" of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society carry these few documentary fragments. In 1630, John Winthrop sold an Indian to John Mainford of Barbadoes. Two decades later, Richard Ligon visited the island and recorded his "true and exact history", published upon his return to London in 1657.12 Ligon recorded many encounters with "Indian" slaves, many working in the houses of his hosts. One woman taught him how to make corn pone by "scaring it very fine (and it will fall out as fine as the finest wheat-flower in England....)."13 Indian men slaves made "perino", a drink "for their own drinking...made of Cassavy root, which I told you is a strong poyson; and this they cause their old wives, who have a small remainder of teeth, to chaw and spit out into water...."14 Ligon liked the Indians he met. He remarked, "As for the Indians, we have but few, and those fetcht from other Countries;...which we make slaves; the women who are better vers'd in ordering the Cassavie and making bread then (sic) the Negroes, we imploy for that purpose, as also for making Mobbie: the men we use for footmen and killing of fish, which they are good at; with their own bowes and arrows they will go out; and in a dayes time, kill as much fish as will serve a family of a dozen persons two or three dayes....They are very active men, and apt to learn any thing sooner than the Negroes....they are much craftier and sutiler then the Negroes; and in their nature falser; but in their bodies more active..."15
Of course generations of African diaspora scholars have demolished this kind of reading of the behavior of African slaves - wiser than the Indians in not leaping to do the bidding of owners and far "subtler" in keeping their attitudes to themselves. But that Ligon so admired these Indians suggests the extent to which the Barbadian plantocracy shared these views and was anxious to accumulate more such people.
Shortly after Ligon's return home, the Barbados Museum records tell us, a large number of Narragansetts from Connecticut were sold to Barbados. In 1668, at least one Indian slave was sent from Boston to the island while in 1700, a "big sale" of Indians from North America to the West Indies occurred. A year later, in 1701, Acolapissa Indian captives were sold by Virginians into the Caribbean.
The early 18th century saw no end to this trade though the bulk of the market may have begun to shift to the French speaking Caribbean as the British continued their conquest westward and as the French continued to use the slave trade's profits to support their war efforts.16 In 1729 the Louisiana French, together with their Choctaw allies, put an end to constant Natchez Indian revolts, capturing the Natchez war leader, Great Sun, plus some 480 others, and selling them all to the West Indies. The capture and sale of Natchez people to the islands continued until, one historian notes bleakly, by 1742 "the Natchez tribe had virtually disappeared."17
Small little markers - ephemeral traces - but signs nonetheless of a vast dislocation, a terrible colonial "trail of tears" as later forced removals came to be known. Indians slaves were useful; Indians slaves were profitable; Indian slaves left behind land for the Europeans to steal.
----------------------
The quest continues, and there isn't time to narrate the further fragments I have found. But it is clear to me now that Indian voices, muted, mixed in the "Negroe, Indian, and Mulattoe" slave worlds of the 17th and 18th centuries, form an as yet little heard chorus, mixed into the complicated sounds of Barbados that Kamau Brathwaite has given that nation and the world. Even as I listened to Kamau sing us the drumming sounds of Mile and a Quarter that drizzly night in Canterbury, I really did hear, too, the softer sounds audible nearby at "Indian Groun(d)" (now a Seventh Day Adventist Church), these the sounds of the houmfort, the tonelle, the music of his Great Uncle Bob'ob the Ogoun (and the sounds of prejudice: "white man better than red man better than black man"18 ). It was not a fantasy. Hearing Brathwaite, I was hearing our Indian sounds, too, the drumming, the sounds of moccasined feet dancing the earth.
============
The extent of the trade in North American Indians that I and others are beginning to document becomes clearer with each foray into the archives. And increasingly the question becomes why the silence? I think there are two basic reasons. First, the overculture's silence is easily explained by the fact that its historians never want to come to terms with a bloody and terrible past. The acknowledgment of African slavery by overcultural U.S. historians took decades of struggle by African American scholars and activists. That the indigenous genocide hidden behind all United States history has yet to be recognized is, like the issue of Indian slavery, due to the powerlessness of indigenous peoples and - it must be said - to their own reluctance. The trade in Indian slaves was profitable both to whites and to Indians, and in many cases, the capture and sale would never have reached the extent it did without the active participation of indigenous people themselves. In a time when indigenous peoples are struggling to re-write their own histories, tell their own stories, interpret their own literatures in their own indigenous ways, research not surprisingly focuses less on the painful histories of collaboration and inter-tribal warfare and more on resistance and struggle. But the whole story, the entire past, matters - to all of us. And so this work must be done. Beyond the enriching of Native America's own history, as well as that of the overculture, there are other implications buried within this quest. Here, too, scholars of the African diaspora have given us a crucial lead, and we must follow it. A few examples only. As Judith Carney has painstakingly recorded the African roots of southern rice production, so Indian scholars must add the Indian roots of that same agriculture. As Michael Gomez has shown us with precision the African origins of southern slaves, so we must try to track our own peoples as they disappeared into the vast maw of the West Indian slave markets. As Kamau Brathwaite has recorded the African cultural roots of Bajan identity, so we must add the North American Indian contribution - to the Bajan world, as well as to the world across the Caribbean. It is time, as I realize again every time I am swamped by invitations to come to Jamaica, to the Dominican Republic, to Haiti, to Martinique and Guadaloupe, to Cuba, and back to Barbados whenever I speak of this work. Women I meet tell me that their old grannies have always told the grandchildren that they were Indian as well as African. They want me to come tell these ladies that this is so and why before their grannies die. Others - Caribbean people now living in the United States - recount similar family stories, tales that always before seemed preposterous to many of their hearers, or tales that many argued linked people of African descent only to the Arawaks or Caribs but never, ever to North American Indians.
But perhaps it is more than this. Perhaps for us indigenous scholars, it is just now, at last, time. In the words of Haitian scholar Michel-Rolph Trouillot:
"At some stage, for reasons that are themselves historical, most often spurred by controversy, collectivities experience the need to impose a test of credibility on certain events and narratives because it matters to them whether these events are true or false, whether these stories are fact or fiction."
1Barabajan Poems 1492-1992 (Kingston and New York: Savacou North, 1994):228
2This 1675 speech is attributed to Metacomet by William Apess, a Pequot Indian writing in 1836. See Colin Calloway, ed. The World Turned Upside Down: Voices from Early America (New York, Bedford/St. Martin's Press, 1994):20
3London, 1764
4Handler, "The Amerindian Slave Population of Barbados in the Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries," vol. 8 (1968): 39
5Vol. 3 (Edinburgh: printed for A. Bell and C. Macfarquhar. 1771): 314
6Axtell, The European and the Indian: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981):239
7 Kawashima, "Indian Servitude in the Northeast," in Handbook of North American Indians: History of Indian-White Relations, edited by Wilcomb Washburn (Washington, D.C.: The Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988):404
8French-Indian Policies," in ibid, p.4
9 8 Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip's War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998): 173-5, 153, 170, 167-8, resp.
10MacFarlane, The British in the Americas, 1`480-1815 (London: Longman, 1994):111
11 "South Eastern Indians and the English Trade in Skins and Slaves," in Charles Hudson and Carmen Chaves Tesser, eds., The Forgotten Centuries: Indians and Europeans in the American South, 1521-1704 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994):308
12 Ligon, A True and Exact History of the Island of Barbadoes: illustrated with a map of the island and also the Principal Trees and Plants there, Set forth in their Proportions and Shapes, drawn out by their several and respective Scales (London: Frank Cass, 1970). (1st edn. London: privately printed, 1657; 2cd edn. London: for Peter Parker & Thomas Guy, 1673).
13ibid. pp.29-30
14ibid. p.32
15ibid. p.55
16 The French had long been immersed in a thriving trade in Indian slaves, most of them sold either to colonists in what became the United States or to Canada. So common was the sale of Pawnee Indians to Canada that the French Canadian word for slave is "panis". The historian of this trade is M. Trudeau.
17 Daniel Usner, "American Indians in Colonial New Orleans," in Peter Wood, Gregory Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley, eds., Powhatan's Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast (Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1989):109
18Brathwaite, Barabajan Poems, p.129
19 Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon, 1995): 11
http://www.research.ucsb.edu/cbs/xsite/lectures/legacy/hilden.html#footmarks
Patricia Penn Hilden
University of California, Berkeley
May, 2002
Currently Professor Emerita - Ethnic Studies Department.
I visited Kamau Brathwaite in Barbados and he took me to look for Indians, in this case, the Arawaks, who had "disappeared" almost immediately after the first contact with Europeans, their diseases and their guns. We sought a site around a point at Pico. Brathwaite has written of this place, in Barabajan Poems.
"Now, final, Bathsheba. But we must include the whole wild Maroon coast from RiverBay right round to Pico & the miracle of Cove the ancient Amerindian religious settlement, through Cattlewash to Martin's Bay and congoRock & Consetts in the distance..."1
We didn't find Pico that day, though I have been there since. It remains a sacred place, despite the depredations of artifact-hungry archaeologists, who have lifted as much as possible of the indigenous material history of the island and placed it inside the post-independence Barbados Museum, where it lies in a special room designated "prehistory", producing a "heritage" for contemporary Barbadians in a manner familiar in North America.
But despite this assignment of Arawaks to a "pre-European, pre-African past", I continued to find Indians in Barbados. I kept seeing "Indian" place names, hearing "Indian" sounds. I knew, of course, that Indian slaves had come from South America and from the Mexican coast. But I knew also that many thousands of North America's indigenous peoples had been captured and sold into slavery. In fact, near the end of the 17th century, the Wampanoag leader, Metacomet, known to the English as King Philip, had warned New England's tribal people: "these people from the unknown world will cut down our groves, spoil our hunting and planting grounds, and drive us and our children from the graves of our parents and our council fires, and enslave our women and children."2 I knew that tribal people had worked across the colonies, enslaved in households and workshops, on farms and in fisheries. I knew, too, that Indian slaves worked side by side with African slaves, constituting 1/3 of the slaves in early 18th century South Carolina, for example. Moreover, a handful of historians, Almon Lauber in 1913, followed by Caroline Foreman (1943) and Jack Forbes (1993), had argued that the trade in North American Indian slaves did not limit itself to the North American colonies or even to the trade between America and Europe. So I began to wonder if some North American Indians had not formed part of the slave population in Barbados and thus possibly provided the sources for the place names - "Indian Pond," "Indian Ground," "Indian Corner" - that dot the Barbados landscape. My quest had begun.
I started in the National Archives of Barbados, looking first, rather randomly, through late 17th century records. I quickly discovered that all the myriad - and hopeless - efforts to regulate and control slave rebellion referred consistently to "African and other slaves". But I knew that Indian slaves had also been brought from Guyana and from Venezuela, so these could well have been the "others" referred to. Then I came across the following act, dated June 1676:
"Act to Prohibit the Bringing of Indian Slaves to this Island"
"This Act is passed to prevent the bringing of Indian slaves and as well to send away and transport those already brought to this island from New England and the adjacent colonies, being thought a people of too subtle, bloody and dangerous inclination to be and remain here....."
So there I had it: clear evidence that North America Indian people had indeed worked in Barbados's sugar plantation world. I then took up Richard Hall's Acts Passed in the Island of Barbados from 1643-1762.3 Here, too, were the tantalizing suggestions hidden in the language of more efforts to halt or prevent rebellion. I have time to read only a few:
27 October 1692: "An Act for the encouragement of all Negroes and other slaves that shall discover any conspiracy..."
----------------------: "An Act for prohibiting sale of rum or other strong liquor to any Negro or other Slave..."
----------------------: "An Act for the encouragement of such Negroes and other slaves that shall behave themselves courageously against the enemy in time of invasions (manumitted if two white men proved that they killed an enemy)..."
And even more specific wording:
6 January 1708: "An Act to prevent the vessels that trade here, to and from Martinico or elsewhere, from carrying off any Negro, Indian, or Mulattoe slaves...."
11 November 1731: "Act for amending an Act...entitled 'Act for the Governing of Negroes and for providing a proper maintenance and support for such Negroes, Indians, or Mulattoes as hereafter shall be manumitted or set free...."
Then a diversion. I encountered the only person who had then written about Indian slavery in Barbados, Jerome Handler. In 1968 he had written about the 1676 law but, knowing nothing of the history of North American Indian slavery, had reached different conclusions. Handler argued that North American natives formed only a minuscule, and therefore insignificant, number of Barbadian slaves. All the geographical references to "Indians", he insisted, referred only to Caribs or Arawaks, or to Indians brought from South America or the other Caribbean islands. "By the end of the first few decades of the eighteenth century," Handler wrote, there are few traces of [North American Indians] existing as a distinctive sub-cultural group."4
But "traces," I knew, are more significant than Handler allowed. Stubbornly, I went on looking.
There were words, and here are a few:
At the beginning of the 18th century, in a South Carolina peopled by Indians, Africans, and Europeans, where Charleston formed the heart of the bustling North American-Caribbean slave trade, "mustee" meant people born of all three. In 1770, another word. In Scotland a Society of Gentlemen offered this definition of "mulatto" in their Encyclopedia Britannica: or a Dictionary of Arts and Sciences: "Mulatto: a name given in the Indies to those who are begotten by a Negro man on an Indian woman, or an Indian man on a Negro woman."5
At the same time, North American colonial history was replete with references to Indians captured and sold into the slave trade, references often riddled with stereotypes born, as we shall see below, from the first moments of African Indian slavery. James Axtell, a noted scholar of the colonial era, offered a typical version of events: "The English incited 'civil' war between the tribes....[then] rewarded one side for producing Indian slaves who were then sold to the West Indies, often for more biddable black slaves."6 Axtell's absurd assertion, that "black slaves" were more desirable because more tractable, is repeated across United States history. Here is Yasuhide Kawashima, writing of Pequot warriors captured after escaping the Puritans' genocidal attempt to exterminate their people in the 1630s.7 After capture, they were "sold to the West Indies in exchange for more docile Blacks who became the first Negro slaves in New England." There are others like these two, purveying the same general idea, though with varying degrees of bigotry.
How did this stereotype of willing Black slaves and rebellious Indian slaves arise? Mason Wade offers a clue: "The French...at Biloxi and New Orleans attempted to use Indian slaves to work the tobacco plantations but these ran away and it was decided to import Blacks from the French West Indies."8
Of course. Indians could run away - to their own tribes, to other Indians, to escaped Black slaves in the many maroon communities that soon grew up wherever there was African slavery. So long as they were home, Indians knew where they were - much better than any European, as the records of Indian rescues of witless Europeans attest. Rather than trading boatloads of rebellious Indians for cargoes of "biddable" Africans, it is surely more likely that the English - in New England, Virginia, Barbados, and elsewhere - rounded up and exported any leaders or fomenters of rebellions, whether African or Indian. Removed from whatever place and community they knew, they were perhaps more easily subdued, more easily reduced to a state of hopeless exhaustion characteristic of any dislocated, enslaved peoples. (But it should be reiterated here that the laws of the Barbados Assembly testify eloquently to the constancy with which enslaved peoples continued to rebel, to run.)
Still, some more recent histories take a different view. Jill Lepore's In the Name of War, which narrates the Europeans' version of King Philip's War, takes note of the exchange of African and Indian slaves without characterizing either as "tractable" or "biddable." Indeed, she links Nathaniel Saltonstall's Continuation of the State of New-England, together with an Account of the Intended Rebellion of the Negroes in the Barbados, published in London in 1676, to the simultaneous revolt of New England Indians. "Terrified English colonists in Barbadoes believed that the Africans had 'intended to murther all the white people there,' just as panicked English colonists in New England feared that the Indians had 'risen almost round the countrey.'" She concludes, "the parallels between the two uprisings were uncanny and profoundly disquieting." Moreover, Governor Berkeley of Virginia complained in that same year that "the New England Indian infection had spread." And Barbados's panicky governor, Jonathan Atkins, had sent a similar warning to London shortly before: "the ships from New England still bring advice of burning, killing, and destroying daily done by the Indians and the infection extends as far as Maryland and Virginia."9
So there is some hope for the overturning of this canard. Still, this stereotype, once spread through the colonies, continued for a long time to "justify" the importation of vast numbers of Africans to "replace" the "disappearing" Indians who were, of course, being sold for profit to the Caribbean. However scarce, Indians continued to be captured and sold to Barbados. After the 1670 founding of Charlestown by Sir John Colleton and his fellow Barbadians, dozens more landless Barbadians flocked to the area where they quickly replicated Barbados economic and social practices. Anthony MacFarlane tells us, "there was...an ominous sign that [Carolina] would eventually follow [Barbados's] path, in that the settlers took Indians as slaves, both for their own use and for export to the West Indies."10 As commodities on the slave market, Indians were quite valuable. In neighboring Virginia in that era, "a child was worth more than her weight in deerskins; a single adult slave was equal in value to the leather produced in 2 years of hunting...By the latter half of the 17th century, if not before," Joel Martin reports, "slavery was big business in Virginia, an important part of the English trading regime."11
Marking the historical moments when the British sold captive Indians into the Caribbean slave trade is possible. Every single rebellion against the invaders, beginning with the first organized resistence to the Virginians at the beginning of the 17th century and continuing through the Pequot genocide (1630s), and Metacom's Rebellion (1675-76), produced Indian slaves for the Caribbean trade. The slave trade was extensive. There is room here for only a few examples. The Carolinians waged a long struggle with Spain in Florida, the fruits of which were often captive Indians. Between 1702 and 1707, thousands of missionized Indians - already trained into docility and servitude - were sold into the Caribbean. The next year, Englishmen in the Carolinas seized between 10,000 and 12,000 more Christianized Indians and quickly dispatched them to slave islands in the West Indies. The Tuscaroras and Yamassees were so afflicted by these English colonial practices that both nations went to war to try to stop it. Both paid a heavy price, though the Tuscaroras survived. When they inevitably lost their 1711 war, the entire surviving population managed to flee north where they found refuge with the five nations of the powerful Iroquois Confederacy, ultimately surviving as the sixth nation of a confederation that continues today. The Yamassees, some of whom were part of the missionized Indians captured earlier, waged a long war against this slave trade, a war that lasted from 1715-28. They paid the ultimate price, their defeat signaling the virtual disappearance of the Yamassee nation though some survivors fled to other nations or to one of the hundreds of maroon communities across southeastern North America. A few years later, the defeat of the great pan-Indian rebellion of 1736-66, led by the famous war chief Pontiac, sent still more Indians on their way to Caribbean cane houses and cane fields. And from all the other invaded regions of North America came more rebellions, more slaves.
All the years between these markers, all over North America, slave raids and violent conflict produced humans for sale. The "Plantation Records" of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society carry these few documentary fragments. In 1630, John Winthrop sold an Indian to John Mainford of Barbadoes. Two decades later, Richard Ligon visited the island and recorded his "true and exact history", published upon his return to London in 1657.12 Ligon recorded many encounters with "Indian" slaves, many working in the houses of his hosts. One woman taught him how to make corn pone by "scaring it very fine (and it will fall out as fine as the finest wheat-flower in England....)."13 Indian men slaves made "perino", a drink "for their own drinking...made of Cassavy root, which I told you is a strong poyson; and this they cause their old wives, who have a small remainder of teeth, to chaw and spit out into water...."14 Ligon liked the Indians he met. He remarked, "As for the Indians, we have but few, and those fetcht from other Countries;...which we make slaves; the women who are better vers'd in ordering the Cassavie and making bread then (sic) the Negroes, we imploy for that purpose, as also for making Mobbie: the men we use for footmen and killing of fish, which they are good at; with their own bowes and arrows they will go out; and in a dayes time, kill as much fish as will serve a family of a dozen persons two or three dayes....They are very active men, and apt to learn any thing sooner than the Negroes....they are much craftier and sutiler then the Negroes; and in their nature falser; but in their bodies more active..."15
Of course generations of African diaspora scholars have demolished this kind of reading of the behavior of African slaves - wiser than the Indians in not leaping to do the bidding of owners and far "subtler" in keeping their attitudes to themselves. But that Ligon so admired these Indians suggests the extent to which the Barbadian plantocracy shared these views and was anxious to accumulate more such people.
Shortly after Ligon's return home, the Barbados Museum records tell us, a large number of Narragansetts from Connecticut were sold to Barbados. In 1668, at least one Indian slave was sent from Boston to the island while in 1700, a "big sale" of Indians from North America to the West Indies occurred. A year later, in 1701, Acolapissa Indian captives were sold by Virginians into the Caribbean.
The early 18th century saw no end to this trade though the bulk of the market may have begun to shift to the French speaking Caribbean as the British continued their conquest westward and as the French continued to use the slave trade's profits to support their war efforts.16 In 1729 the Louisiana French, together with their Choctaw allies, put an end to constant Natchez Indian revolts, capturing the Natchez war leader, Great Sun, plus some 480 others, and selling them all to the West Indies. The capture and sale of Natchez people to the islands continued until, one historian notes bleakly, by 1742 "the Natchez tribe had virtually disappeared."17
Small little markers - ephemeral traces - but signs nonetheless of a vast dislocation, a terrible colonial "trail of tears" as later forced removals came to be known. Indians slaves were useful; Indians slaves were profitable; Indian slaves left behind land for the Europeans to steal.
----------------------
The quest continues, and there isn't time to narrate the further fragments I have found. But it is clear to me now that Indian voices, muted, mixed in the "Negroe, Indian, and Mulattoe" slave worlds of the 17th and 18th centuries, form an as yet little heard chorus, mixed into the complicated sounds of Barbados that Kamau Brathwaite has given that nation and the world. Even as I listened to Kamau sing us the drumming sounds of Mile and a Quarter that drizzly night in Canterbury, I really did hear, too, the softer sounds audible nearby at "Indian Groun(d)" (now a Seventh Day Adventist Church), these the sounds of the houmfort, the tonelle, the music of his Great Uncle Bob'ob the Ogoun (and the sounds of prejudice: "white man better than red man better than black man"18 ). It was not a fantasy. Hearing Brathwaite, I was hearing our Indian sounds, too, the drumming, the sounds of moccasined feet dancing the earth.
============
The extent of the trade in North American Indians that I and others are beginning to document becomes clearer with each foray into the archives. And increasingly the question becomes why the silence? I think there are two basic reasons. First, the overculture's silence is easily explained by the fact that its historians never want to come to terms with a bloody and terrible past. The acknowledgment of African slavery by overcultural U.S. historians took decades of struggle by African American scholars and activists. That the indigenous genocide hidden behind all United States history has yet to be recognized is, like the issue of Indian slavery, due to the powerlessness of indigenous peoples and - it must be said - to their own reluctance. The trade in Indian slaves was profitable both to whites and to Indians, and in many cases, the capture and sale would never have reached the extent it did without the active participation of indigenous people themselves. In a time when indigenous peoples are struggling to re-write their own histories, tell their own stories, interpret their own literatures in their own indigenous ways, research not surprisingly focuses less on the painful histories of collaboration and inter-tribal warfare and more on resistance and struggle. But the whole story, the entire past, matters - to all of us. And so this work must be done. Beyond the enriching of Native America's own history, as well as that of the overculture, there are other implications buried within this quest. Here, too, scholars of the African diaspora have given us a crucial lead, and we must follow it. A few examples only. As Judith Carney has painstakingly recorded the African roots of southern rice production, so Indian scholars must add the Indian roots of that same agriculture. As Michael Gomez has shown us with precision the African origins of southern slaves, so we must try to track our own peoples as they disappeared into the vast maw of the West Indian slave markets. As Kamau Brathwaite has recorded the African cultural roots of Bajan identity, so we must add the North American Indian contribution - to the Bajan world, as well as to the world across the Caribbean. It is time, as I realize again every time I am swamped by invitations to come to Jamaica, to the Dominican Republic, to Haiti, to Martinique and Guadaloupe, to Cuba, and back to Barbados whenever I speak of this work. Women I meet tell me that their old grannies have always told the grandchildren that they were Indian as well as African. They want me to come tell these ladies that this is so and why before their grannies die. Others - Caribbean people now living in the United States - recount similar family stories, tales that always before seemed preposterous to many of their hearers, or tales that many argued linked people of African descent only to the Arawaks or Caribs but never, ever to North American Indians.
But perhaps it is more than this. Perhaps for us indigenous scholars, it is just now, at last, time. In the words of Haitian scholar Michel-Rolph Trouillot:
"At some stage, for reasons that are themselves historical, most often spurred by controversy, collectivities experience the need to impose a test of credibility on certain events and narratives because it matters to them whether these events are true or false, whether these stories are fact or fiction."
1Barabajan Poems 1492-1992 (Kingston and New York: Savacou North, 1994):228
2This 1675 speech is attributed to Metacomet by William Apess, a Pequot Indian writing in 1836. See Colin Calloway, ed. The World Turned Upside Down: Voices from Early America (New York, Bedford/St. Martin's Press, 1994):20
3London, 1764
4Handler, "The Amerindian Slave Population of Barbados in the Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries," vol. 8 (1968): 39
5Vol. 3 (Edinburgh: printed for A. Bell and C. Macfarquhar. 1771): 314
6Axtell, The European and the Indian: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981):239
7 Kawashima, "Indian Servitude in the Northeast," in Handbook of North American Indians: History of Indian-White Relations, edited by Wilcomb Washburn (Washington, D.C.: The Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988):404
8French-Indian Policies," in ibid, p.4
9 8 Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip's War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998): 173-5, 153, 170, 167-8, resp.
10MacFarlane, The British in the Americas, 1`480-1815 (London: Longman, 1994):111
11 "South Eastern Indians and the English Trade in Skins and Slaves," in Charles Hudson and Carmen Chaves Tesser, eds., The Forgotten Centuries: Indians and Europeans in the American South, 1521-1704 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994):308
12 Ligon, A True and Exact History of the Island of Barbadoes: illustrated with a map of the island and also the Principal Trees and Plants there, Set forth in their Proportions and Shapes, drawn out by their several and respective Scales (London: Frank Cass, 1970). (1st edn. London: privately printed, 1657; 2cd edn. London: for Peter Parker & Thomas Guy, 1673).
13ibid. pp.29-30
14ibid. p.32
15ibid. p.55
16 The French had long been immersed in a thriving trade in Indian slaves, most of them sold either to colonists in what became the United States or to Canada. So common was the sale of Pawnee Indians to Canada that the French Canadian word for slave is "panis". The historian of this trade is M. Trudeau.
17 Daniel Usner, "American Indians in Colonial New Orleans," in Peter Wood, Gregory Waselkov, and M. Thomas Hatley, eds., Powhatan's Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast (Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1989):109
18Brathwaite, Barabajan Poems, p.129
19 Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon, 1995): 11
http://www.research.ucsb.edu/cbs/xsite/lectures/legacy/hilden.html#footmarks
** Now take a lucky guess, who built those mounds and who's history they have buried in sum secure vault?? **
White Settlers Buried the Truth About the Midwest’s Mysterious Mound Cities
Pioneers and early archaeologists credited distant civilizations, not Native Americans, with building these sophisticated complexes
View of Monks Mound from Woodhenge Circle (Photo courtesy of Sarah E. Baires)
By Sarah E. Baires, Zócalo Public Square
SMITHSONIANMAG.COM
Around 1100 or 1200 A.D., the largest city north of Mexico was Cahokia, sitting in what is now southern Illinois, across the Mississippi River from St. Louis. Built around 1050 A.D. and occupied through 1400 A.D., Cahokia had a peak population of between 25,000 and 50,000 people. Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Cahokia was composed of three boroughs (Cahokia, East St. Louis, and St. Louis) connected to each other via waterways and walking trails that extended across the Mississippi River floodplain for some 20 square km. Its population consisted of agriculturalists who grew large amounts of maize, and craft specialists who made beautiful pots, shell jewelry, arrow-points, and flint clay figurines.
The city of Cahokia is one of many large earthen mound complexes that dot the landscapes of the Ohio and Mississippi River Valleys and across the Southeast. Despite the preponderance of archaeological evidence that these mound complexes were the work of sophisticated Native American civilizations, this rich history was obscured by the Myth of the Mound Builders, a narrative that arose ostensibly to explain the existence of the mounds. Examining both the history of Cahokia and the historic myths that were created to explain it reveals the troubling role that early archaeologists played in diminishing, or even eradicating, the achievements of pre-Columbian civilizations on the North American continent, just as the U.S. government was expanding westward by taking control of Native American lands.
Today it’s difficult to grasp the size and complexity of Cahokia, composed of about 190 mounds in platform, ridge-top, and circular shapes aligned to a planned city grid oriented five degrees east of north. This alignment, according to Tim Pauketat, professor of anthropology at the University of Illinois, is tied to the summer solstice sunrise and the southern maximum moonrise, orientating Cahokia to the movement of both the sun and the moon.
Neighborhood houses, causeways, plazas, and mounds were intentionally aligned to this city grid. Imagine yourself walking out from Cahokia’s downtown; on your journey you would encounter neighborhoods of rectangular, semi-subterranean houses, central hearth fires, storage pits, and smaller community plazas interspersed with ritual and public buildings. We know Cahokia’s population was diverse, with people moving to this city from across the midcontinent, likely speaking different dialects and bringing with them some of their old ways of life.
The largest mound at Cahokia was Monks Mound, a four-terraced platform mound about 100 feet high that served as the city’s central point. Atop its summit sat one of the largest rectangular buildings ever constructed at Cahokia; it likely served as a ritual space.
In front of Monks Mound was a large, open plaza that held a chunk yard to play the popular sport of chunkey. This game, watched by thousands of spectators, was played by two large groups who would run across the plaza lobbing spears at a rolling stone disk. The goal of the game was to land their spear at the point where the disk would stop rolling. In addition to the chunk yard, upright marker posts and additional platform mounds were situated along the plaza edges. Ridge-top burial mounds were placed along Cahokia’s central organizing grid, marked by the Rattlesnake Causeway, and along the city limits.
Cahokia was built rapidly, with thousands of people coming together to participate in its construction. As far as archaeologists know, there was no forced labor used to build these mounds; instead, people came together for big feasts and gatherings that celebrated the construction of the mounds.
The splendor of the mounds was visible to the first white people who described them. But they thought that the American Indian known to early white settlers could not have built any of the great earthworks that dotted the midcontinent. So the question then became: Who built the mounds?
Early archaeologists working to answer the question of who built the mounds attributed them to the Toltecs, Vikings, Welshmen, Hindus, and many others. It seemed that any group—other than the American Indian—could serve as the likely architects of the great earthworks. The impact of this narrative led to some of early America’s most rigorous archaeology, as the quest to determine where these mounds came from became salacious conversation pieces for America’s middle and upper classes. The Ohio earthworks, such as Newark Earthworks, a National Historic Landmark located just outside Newark, OH, for example, were thought by John Fitch (builder of America’s first steam-powered boat in 1785) to be military-style fortifications. This contributed to the notion that, prior to the Native American, highly skilled warriors of unknown origin had populated the North American continent.
This was particularly salient in the Midwest and Southeast, where earthen mounds from the Archaic, Hopewell, and Mississippian time periods crisscross the midcontinent. These landscapes and the mounds built upon them quickly became places of fantasy, where speculation as to their origins rose from the grassy prairies and vast floodplains, just like the mounds themselves. According to Gordon Sayre (The Mound Builders and the Imagination of American Antiquity in Jefferson, Bartram, and Chateaubriand), the tales of the origins of the mounds were often based in a “fascination with antiquity and architecture,” as “ruins of a distant past,” or as “natural” manifestations of the landscape.
When William Bartram and others recorded local Native American narratives of the mounds, they seemingly corroborated these mythical origins of the mounds. According to Bartram’s early journals (Travels, originally published in 1791) the Creek and the Cherokee who lived around mounds attributed their construction to “the ancients, many ages prior to their arrival and possessing of this country.” Bartram’s account of Creek and Cherokee histories led to the view that these Native Americans were colonizers, just like Euro-Americans. This served as one more way to justify the removal of Native Americans from their ancestral lands: If Native Americans were early colonizers, too, the logic went, then white Americans had just as much right to the land as indigenous peoples.
The creation of the Myth of the Mounds parallels early American expansionist practices like the state-sanctioned removal of Native peoples from their ancestral lands to make way for the movement of “new” Americans into the Western “frontier.” Part of this forced removal included the erasure of Native American ties to their cultural landscapes.
In the 19th century, evolutionary theory began to take hold of the interpretations of the past, as archaeological research moved away from the armchair and into the realm of scientific inquiry. Within this frame of reference, antiquarians and early archaeologists, as described by Bruce Trigger, attempted to demonstrate that the New World, like the Old World, “could boast indigenous cultural achievements rivaling those of Europe.” Discoveries of ancient stone cities in Central America and Mexico served as the catalyst for this quest, recognizing New World societies as comparable culturally and technologically to those of Europe.
But this perspective collided with Lewis Henry Morgan’s 1881 text Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines. Morgan, an anthropologist and social theorist, argued that Mesoamerican societies (such as the Maya and Aztec) exemplified the evolutionary category of “Middle Barbarism”—the highest stage of cultural and technological evolution to be achieved by any indigenous group in the Americas. By contrast, Morgan said that Native Americans located in the growing territories of the new United States were quintessential examples of “Stone Age” cultures—unprogressive and static communities incapable of technological or cultural advancement. These ideologies framed the archaeological research of the time.
In juxtaposition to this evolutionary model there was unease about the “Vanishing Indian,” a myth-history of the 18th and 19th centuries that depicted Native Americans as a vanishing race incapable of adapting to the new American civilization. The sentimentalized ideal of the Vanishing Indian—who were seen as noble but ultimately doomed to be vanquished by a superior white civilization—held that these “vanishing” people, their customs, beliefs, and practices, must be documented for posterity. Thomas Jefferson was one of the first to excavate into a Native American burial mound, citing the disappearance of the “noble” Indians—caused by violence and the corruption of the encroaching white civilization—as the need for these excavations. Enlightenment-inspired scholars and some of America’s Founders viewed Indians as the first Americans, to be used as models by the new republic in the creation of its own legacy and national identity.
During the last 100 years, extensive archaeological research has changed our understanding of the mounds. They are no longer viewed as isolated monuments created by a mysterious race. Instead, the mounds of North America have been proven to be constructions by Native American peoples for a variety of purposes. Today, some tribes, like the Mississippi Band of Choctaw, view these mounds as central places tying their communities to their ancestral lands. Similar to other ancient cities throughout the world, Native North Americans venerate their ties to history through the places they built.
Editor's Note: The original story stated that William Bartram's Travels was published in 1928, but these early journals were actually published in 1791.
White Settlers Buried the Truth About the Midwest’s Mysterious Mound Cities
Pioneers and early archaeologists credited distant civilizations, not Native Americans, with building these sophisticated complexes
View of Monks Mound from Woodhenge Circle (Photo courtesy of Sarah E. Baires)
By Sarah E. Baires, Zócalo Public Square
SMITHSONIANMAG.COM
Around 1100 or 1200 A.D., the largest city north of Mexico was Cahokia, sitting in what is now southern Illinois, across the Mississippi River from St. Louis. Built around 1050 A.D. and occupied through 1400 A.D., Cahokia had a peak population of between 25,000 and 50,000 people. Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Cahokia was composed of three boroughs (Cahokia, East St. Louis, and St. Louis) connected to each other via waterways and walking trails that extended across the Mississippi River floodplain for some 20 square km. Its population consisted of agriculturalists who grew large amounts of maize, and craft specialists who made beautiful pots, shell jewelry, arrow-points, and flint clay figurines.
The city of Cahokia is one of many large earthen mound complexes that dot the landscapes of the Ohio and Mississippi River Valleys and across the Southeast. Despite the preponderance of archaeological evidence that these mound complexes were the work of sophisticated Native American civilizations, this rich history was obscured by the Myth of the Mound Builders, a narrative that arose ostensibly to explain the existence of the mounds. Examining both the history of Cahokia and the historic myths that were created to explain it reveals the troubling role that early archaeologists played in diminishing, or even eradicating, the achievements of pre-Columbian civilizations on the North American continent, just as the U.S. government was expanding westward by taking control of Native American lands.
Today it’s difficult to grasp the size and complexity of Cahokia, composed of about 190 mounds in platform, ridge-top, and circular shapes aligned to a planned city grid oriented five degrees east of north. This alignment, according to Tim Pauketat, professor of anthropology at the University of Illinois, is tied to the summer solstice sunrise and the southern maximum moonrise, orientating Cahokia to the movement of both the sun and the moon.
Neighborhood houses, causeways, plazas, and mounds were intentionally aligned to this city grid. Imagine yourself walking out from Cahokia’s downtown; on your journey you would encounter neighborhoods of rectangular, semi-subterranean houses, central hearth fires, storage pits, and smaller community plazas interspersed with ritual and public buildings. We know Cahokia’s population was diverse, with people moving to this city from across the midcontinent, likely speaking different dialects and bringing with them some of their old ways of life.
The largest mound at Cahokia was Monks Mound, a four-terraced platform mound about 100 feet high that served as the city’s central point. Atop its summit sat one of the largest rectangular buildings ever constructed at Cahokia; it likely served as a ritual space.
In front of Monks Mound was a large, open plaza that held a chunk yard to play the popular sport of chunkey. This game, watched by thousands of spectators, was played by two large groups who would run across the plaza lobbing spears at a rolling stone disk. The goal of the game was to land their spear at the point where the disk would stop rolling. In addition to the chunk yard, upright marker posts and additional platform mounds were situated along the plaza edges. Ridge-top burial mounds were placed along Cahokia’s central organizing grid, marked by the Rattlesnake Causeway, and along the city limits.
Cahokia was built rapidly, with thousands of people coming together to participate in its construction. As far as archaeologists know, there was no forced labor used to build these mounds; instead, people came together for big feasts and gatherings that celebrated the construction of the mounds.
The splendor of the mounds was visible to the first white people who described them. But they thought that the American Indian known to early white settlers could not have built any of the great earthworks that dotted the midcontinent. So the question then became: Who built the mounds?
Early archaeologists working to answer the question of who built the mounds attributed them to the Toltecs, Vikings, Welshmen, Hindus, and many others. It seemed that any group—other than the American Indian—could serve as the likely architects of the great earthworks. The impact of this narrative led to some of early America’s most rigorous archaeology, as the quest to determine where these mounds came from became salacious conversation pieces for America’s middle and upper classes. The Ohio earthworks, such as Newark Earthworks, a National Historic Landmark located just outside Newark, OH, for example, were thought by John Fitch (builder of America’s first steam-powered boat in 1785) to be military-style fortifications. This contributed to the notion that, prior to the Native American, highly skilled warriors of unknown origin had populated the North American continent.
This was particularly salient in the Midwest and Southeast, where earthen mounds from the Archaic, Hopewell, and Mississippian time periods crisscross the midcontinent. These landscapes and the mounds built upon them quickly became places of fantasy, where speculation as to their origins rose from the grassy prairies and vast floodplains, just like the mounds themselves. According to Gordon Sayre (The Mound Builders and the Imagination of American Antiquity in Jefferson, Bartram, and Chateaubriand), the tales of the origins of the mounds were often based in a “fascination with antiquity and architecture,” as “ruins of a distant past,” or as “natural” manifestations of the landscape.
When William Bartram and others recorded local Native American narratives of the mounds, they seemingly corroborated these mythical origins of the mounds. According to Bartram’s early journals (Travels, originally published in 1791) the Creek and the Cherokee who lived around mounds attributed their construction to “the ancients, many ages prior to their arrival and possessing of this country.” Bartram’s account of Creek and Cherokee histories led to the view that these Native Americans were colonizers, just like Euro-Americans. This served as one more way to justify the removal of Native Americans from their ancestral lands: If Native Americans were early colonizers, too, the logic went, then white Americans had just as much right to the land as indigenous peoples.
The creation of the Myth of the Mounds parallels early American expansionist practices like the state-sanctioned removal of Native peoples from their ancestral lands to make way for the movement of “new” Americans into the Western “frontier.” Part of this forced removal included the erasure of Native American ties to their cultural landscapes.
In the 19th century, evolutionary theory began to take hold of the interpretations of the past, as archaeological research moved away from the armchair and into the realm of scientific inquiry. Within this frame of reference, antiquarians and early archaeologists, as described by Bruce Trigger, attempted to demonstrate that the New World, like the Old World, “could boast indigenous cultural achievements rivaling those of Europe.” Discoveries of ancient stone cities in Central America and Mexico served as the catalyst for this quest, recognizing New World societies as comparable culturally and technologically to those of Europe.
But this perspective collided with Lewis Henry Morgan’s 1881 text Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines. Morgan, an anthropologist and social theorist, argued that Mesoamerican societies (such as the Maya and Aztec) exemplified the evolutionary category of “Middle Barbarism”—the highest stage of cultural and technological evolution to be achieved by any indigenous group in the Americas. By contrast, Morgan said that Native Americans located in the growing territories of the new United States were quintessential examples of “Stone Age” cultures—unprogressive and static communities incapable of technological or cultural advancement. These ideologies framed the archaeological research of the time.
In juxtaposition to this evolutionary model there was unease about the “Vanishing Indian,” a myth-history of the 18th and 19th centuries that depicted Native Americans as a vanishing race incapable of adapting to the new American civilization. The sentimentalized ideal of the Vanishing Indian—who were seen as noble but ultimately doomed to be vanquished by a superior white civilization—held that these “vanishing” people, their customs, beliefs, and practices, must be documented for posterity. Thomas Jefferson was one of the first to excavate into a Native American burial mound, citing the disappearance of the “noble” Indians—caused by violence and the corruption of the encroaching white civilization—as the need for these excavations. Enlightenment-inspired scholars and some of America’s Founders viewed Indians as the first Americans, to be used as models by the new republic in the creation of its own legacy and national identity.
During the last 100 years, extensive archaeological research has changed our understanding of the mounds. They are no longer viewed as isolated monuments created by a mysterious race. Instead, the mounds of North America have been proven to be constructions by Native American peoples for a variety of purposes. Today, some tribes, like the Mississippi Band of Choctaw, view these mounds as central places tying their communities to their ancestral lands. Similar to other ancient cities throughout the world, Native North Americans venerate their ties to history through the places they built.
Editor's Note: The original story stated that William Bartram's Travels was published in 1928, but these early journals were actually published in 1791.
Whos ancestors were these euro colonist fighting???
Indian Wars List and Timeline
From the earliest European visitors to the Westward Expansion of the United States, white settlers often encountered the American Indians. Though many of these meetings were peaceful, the cultures more often clashed, resulting in hundreds of battles and skirmishes, between the Indians and pioneers encroaching upon their lands, as well as conflicts between the tribes and the U.S. Army. Though confrontations with the Indians virtually occurred since the first European explorers and settlers set foot on American soil, the “Indian War period” is primarily referred to as occurring between 1866 and 1890. These many conflicts are often overshadowed by other periods of U.S. history.
1540-1541 – Tiguex War – Fought in the winter of 1540-41 by the army of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado against the 12 pueblos of Tiwa Indians along both sides of the Rio Grande in New Mexico. It was the first war between Europeans and Native Americans in the American West.
March 22, 1622 – Jamestown Massacre – Powhatan Indians kill 347 English settlers throughout the Virginia colony during the first Powhatan War.
1622-1644 – Powhatan Wars – Following an initial period of peaceful relations in Virginia, a 12-year conflict left many natives and colonists dead.
Pequot War
1636-1637 – Pequot War – Taking place in Connecticut and Rhode Island, the death of a colonist eventually led to the destruction of 600-700 natives. The remainder were sold into slavery in Bermuda.
May 26, 1637 – Mystic Massacre – During the Pequot War, English colonists, with Mohegan and Narragansett allies, attack a large Pequot village on the Mystic River in what is now Connecticut, killing around 500 villagers.
1675-1676 – King Philip’s War – King Philip’s War erupts in New England between colonists and Native Americans as a result of tensions over colonist’s expansionist activities. The bloody war rages up and down the Connecticut River valley in Massachusetts and in the Plymouth and Rhode Island colonies, eventually resulting in 600 English colonials being killed and 3,000 Native Americans, including women and children on both sides. King Philip (the colonist’s nickname for Metacomet, chief of the Wampanoag) is hunted down and killed on August 12, 1676, in a swamp in Rhode Island, ending the war in southern New England. In New Hampshire and Maine, the Saco Indians continue to raid settlements for another year and a half.
1680-1692 – Pueblo Revolt – In Arizona and New Mexico, Pueblo Indians led by Popé, rebelled against the Spanish and lived independently for 12 years. The Spanish re-conquered in them in 1692.
1689–1697 – King William’s War – The first of the French and Indian Wars, King William’s War was fought between England, France, and their respective American Indian allies in the colonies of Canada (New France), Acadia, and New England. It was also known as the Second Indian War (the first having been King Philip’s War).
February 8, 1690 – Schenectady Massacre – French and Algonquin Indians destroy Schenectady, New York, killing 60 settlers, including ten women and at least twelve children.
1700-1800 Conflicts
February 29, 1704 – Deerfield Massacre – A force comprised of Abenaki, Kanienkehaka, Wyandot and Pocumtuck Indians, led by a small contingent of French-Canadian militia, sack the town of Deerfield, Massachusetts, killing 56 civilians and taking dozens more as captives.
1711 – Tuscarora War – Taking place in North Carolina, the Tuscarora War, led by Chief Hancock, was fought between the British, Dutch, and German settlers and the Tuscarora Native Americans. In an attempt to drive the colonists out of their territory, the tribe attacked several settlements, killing settlers and destroying farms. In 1713, James Moore and Yamasee warriors defeated the Indians.
1715-1718 – Yamasee War – In southern Carolina, an Indian confederation led by the Yamasee came close to exterminating a white settlement in their region.
French & Indian War
1754-1763 – French and Indian War – A conflict between France and Britain for possession of North America. For various motivations, most Algonquian tribes allied with the French; the Iroquois with the British.
August 1757 – Fort William Henry Massacre – Following the fall of Fort William Henry, between 70 and 180 British and colonial prisoners are killed by Indian allies of the French.
1760-1762 – Cherokee Uprising – A breakdown in relations between the British and the Cherokee leads to a general uprising in present-day Tennessee, Virginia and the Carolinas.
1763 – Pontiac’s Rebellion – In the Ohio River Valley, War Chief Pontiac and a large alliance drove out the British at every post except Detroit. After besieging the fort for five months, they withdrew to find food for the winter.
September 14, 1763 – Devil’s Hole Massacre – Seneca double ambush of a British supply train and soldiers.
December, 1763 – Conestoga Massacre – Pennsylvania settlers kill 20 peaceful Susquehannock in response to Pontiac’s Rebellion.
July 26, 1764 – Enoch Brown School Massacre – Four Delaware Indians killed a schoolmaster, 10 pupils, and a pregnant woman. Amazingly two pupils who were scalped survived.
1774 – Lord Dunmore’s War – Shawnee and Mingo Indians raided a wave of traders and settlers in the southern Ohio River Valley. Governor Dunmore of Virginia sent in 3,000 soldiers and defeated 1,000 natives.
1776-1794 – Chickamauga Wars – A series of conflicts that were a continuation of the Cherokee struggle against white encroachment. Led by Dragging Canoe, who was called the Chickamauga by colonials, the Cherokee fought white settlers in Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
July 3, 1778 – Wyoming Valley Massacre – Following a battle with rebel defenders of Forty Fort, Iroquois allies of the Loyalist forces hunt and kill those who flee, then torture to death those who surrendered.
August 31, 1778 – Stockbridge Massacre – A battle of the American Revolution that rebel propaganda portrayed as a massacre.
November 11, 1778 – Cherry Valley Massacre – An attack by British and Seneca Indian forces on a fort and village in eastern New York during the American Revolution. The town was destroyed and 16 defenders were killed.
Battle of Fallen Timbers by H. Charles McBarron, Jr, 1953
March 8, 1782 – Gnadenhutten Massacre – Nearly 100 non-combatant Christian Delaware (Lenape) Indians, mostly women, and children, were killed with hammer blows to the head by Pennsylvania militiamen.
1785-1795 – Old Northwest War – Fighting occurred in Ohio and Indiana. Following two humiliating defeats at the hands of native warriors, the Americans won a decisive victory under “Mad Anthony” Wayne at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.
1794 – Nickajack Expedition – Cherokee Chief, Dragging Canoe, and his followers, who opposed the peace, separated from the tribe and relocated to East Tennessee, where they were joined by groups of Shawnee and Creek. Engaged in numerous raids on the white settlers for several years, they used Nickajack Cave as their stronghold. In 1894, the military attacked, leaving some 70 Indians dead.
1800-1850 Conflicts
Shawnee Chief Tecumseh
November 6, 1811 – Battle of Tippecanoe – The Prophet, brother of Shawnee Chief Tecumseh, attacked Governor William Henry Harrison’s force at dawn near the Wabash and Tippecanoe Rivers in Indiana Territory. After hand-to-hand combat, the natives fled.
August 15, 1812 – Fort Dearborn Massacre – American settlers and soldiers are killed in an ambush near Fort Dearborn, at the present-day site of Chicago, Illinois.
January 22, 1813 – Battle of Frenchtown – Also known as the River Raisin Massacre, it was a severe defeat for the Americans during the War of 1812, when they attempted to retake Detroit.
August 18, 1813 – Dilbone Massacre – Three settlers killed in Miami County, Ohio.
August 30, 1813 – Fort Mims Massacre – Following the defeat at the Battle of Burnt Corn, a band of Red Sticks sack Fort Mims, Alabama, killing 400 civilians and taking 250 scalps. This action precipitates the Creek War.
Sept 19 – Oct 21, 1813 – Peoria War – An Armed conflict between the U. S. Army and the Potawatomi and the Kickapoo that took place in the Peoria County, Illinois area.
1814 – Creek War – Militiamen under Andrew Jackson broke the power of Creek raiders in Georgia and Alabama after the Creek had attacked Fort Mims and massacred settlers. They relinquished a vast land tract. (See Battle of Horseshoe Bend)
Seminole Wars
1816-1818 – First Seminole War – The Seminole, defending runaway slaves and their land in Florida, fought Andrew Jackson’s force. Jackson failed to subdue them, but forced Spain to relinquish the territory.
Spring, 1817 – Battle of Claremore Mound – Cherokee Indians wipe out Osage Indians led by Chief Clermont at Claremore Mound, Indian Territory.
April 22, 1818 – Chehaw Affair – U.S. troops attack a non-hostile village during the First Seminole War, killing an estimated 10 to 50 men, women and children.
June 2, 1823 – Arikara War – Occurring near the Missouri River in present-day South Dakota, Arikara warriors attacked a trapping expedition and the U.S. Army retaliated. It was the first military conflict between the United States and the western Native Americans.
1827 – Winnebago War – Also referred to as the Le Fèvre Indian War, this armed conflict took place in Wisconsin between the Winnebago and military forces. Losses of lives were minimal, but the war was a precedent to the much larger Black Hawk War.
Blackhawk War
1832 – Black Hawk War – Occurring in northern Illinois and southwestern Wisconsin, it was the last native conflict in the area. Led by Chief Black Hawk, the Sac and Fox tribes made an unsuccessful attempt to move back to their homeland.
May 20, 1832 – Indian Creek Massacre – Potawatomi Indians, kidnap two girls and kill 15 men, women and children north of Ottawa, Illinois.
August 1, 1832 – Battle of Bad Axe – Around 300 Indian men, women, and children are killed in Wisconsin by white soldiers.
Spring, 1833 – Cutthroat Gap Massacre – Osage Indians wiped out a Kiowa Indian village in Indian Territory.
The Seminole Wars
1835-1842 – Second Seminole War – Under Chief Osceola, the Seminole resumed fighting for their land in the Florida Everglades. Osceola was captured and they were nearly eliminated.
1836-1875 – Comanche Wars – On the southern plains, primarily in the Texas Republic, there were many conflicts with the Comanche. The U.S. Military instituted official campaigns against the Comanche in 1867.
1836 – Creek War of 1836 – Though most Creeks ad been forced to Indian Territory, those that remained rebelled when the state moved to abolish tribal governments and extend state laws over the Creeks.
May 19, 1836 – Fort Parker Massacre – Six men killed by a mixed Indian group in Limestone County, Texas. (Also see: Cynthia Ann Parker – White Woman in a Comanche World)
Osage Warrior
1837 – Osage Indian War – A number of skirmishes with the Osage Indians in Missouri.
November 10, 1837 – Battle of Stone Houses – A Texas Ranger Company pursued a band of raiding Kichai Indians up the Brazos River, where they battled near the present-day city of Windthorst, Texas.
October 5, 1838 – Killough Massacre – Indians massacre eighteen members and relatives of the Killough family in Texas.
1839 – Cherokee War – This war was a culmination of friction between the Cherokee, Kickapoo, and Shawnee Indians and the white settlers in Northeast Texas.
July 1839 – Battle of the Neches – The principal engagement of the Cherokee War, the battle culminated after the Cherokee refused to leave Texas.
March 19, 1840 – Council House Fight – A conflict between Republic of Texas officials and a Comanche peace delegation in San Antonio, Texas. When terms could not be agreed on, a conflict erupted resulting in the death of 30 Comanche leaders who had come to San Antonio under a flag of truce.
1840 – Great Raid of 1840 – The largest raid ever mounted by Native Americans on white cities. Following the Council House Fight, Comanche War Chief Buffalo Hump raised a huge war party and raided deep into white-settled areas of Southeast Texas.
August 11, 1840 – Battle of Plum Creek – The Penateka Comanche were so angry after the Council House Fight, they retaliated in the summer of 1840 by conducting multiple raids in the Guadalupe Valley. The raids culminated in a battle between the Indians and the Texas volunteer army along with the Texas Rangers near the present-day city of Lockhart, Texas. For two days they battled and the Comanche were defeated.
Whitman Massacre
November 29, 1847 – Whitman Massacre – The murder of missionaries Dr. Marcus Whitman, Mrs. Narcissa Whitman and twelve others at Walla Walla, Washington by Cayuse and Umatilla Indians, triggering the Cayuse War.
June 17, 1848 – Battle of Coon Creek – When a company of about 140 soldiers were on their way to left join the Santa Fe battalion in Chihuahua, Mexico, they were attacked near the present town of Kinsley, Kansas by some 200 Comanche and Apache Indians.
1848–1855 – Cayuse War – Occurring in Oregon Territory and Washington Territory, the conflict between the Cayuse and white settlers was caused in part by the influx of disease, and resulting in the Whitman Massacre and the Cayuse War.
1849-1863 – Navajo Conflicts – Persistent fighting between the Navajo and the U.S. Army in Arizona and New Mexico led to their expulsion and incarceration on an inhospitable reservation far from their homelands.
California Gold Rush Miners
1850-1900 Conflicts
1850-1851 – Mariposa War – Spawned by the flood of miners rushing onto their lands after the California Gold Rush, some tribes fought back including the Paiute and the Yokut.
Spring, 1850 – Bloody Island Massacre – The murder of up to 200 Pomo people on an island near Upper Lake, California by Nathaniel Lyon and his U. S. Army detachment, in retaliation for the killing of two Clear Lake settlers who had been abusing and murdering Pomo people.
1851-1853 – Utah Indian Wars – Numerous skirmishes throughout Utah which finally lead to the Walker War.
October 21, 1853 – Gunnison Massacre – In Millard County, Utah, a band of Ute Indians massacred Captain John W. Gunnison’s Pacific Railroad Survey party of seven men.
1853 – Walker War – When the Mormons began to settle on the hunting grounds of the Ute Indians of Utah, they were at first friendly, then fought back.
1854-1890 – Sioux Wars – As white settlers moved across the Mississippi River into Minnesota, South Dakota, and Wyoming, the Sioux under Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse resisted to keep their hunting grounds.
August 17, 1854 – Kaibai Creek Massacre – Forty-two Winnemem Wintu men, women and children are killed by white settlers at Kaibai Creek, California.
August 19, 1854 – Grattan Fight – Twenty-nine U.S. soldiers killed by Brulé Lakota Sioux Indians in Nebraska Territory.
August 20, 1854 – Ward Massacre – Eighteen of the 20 members of the Alexander Ward party were killed by Shoshone Indians while traveling on the Oregon Trail in western Idaho.
1855 – Snake River War – Fighting occurred at the junction of the Tucannon River and the Snake River in Washington Territory.
Klickitat brave in Oregon, 1899.
1855 – Klickitat War – This conflict occurred between the Klickitat and Cascade Indians against white settlers along the Columbia River in central Washington. When intimidation and force failed to get the Indians to cede their lands, battles erupted resulting in the Indians being removed from their lands.
1855-1858 – Third Seminole War – Under Chief Billy Bowlegs, the Seminole mounted their final stand against the U.S. in the Florida Everglades. When Bowlegs surrendered; he and others were deported to Indian Territory in Oklahoma.
1855-1856 – Rogue River Wars – In the Rogue River Valley area southern Oregon, a conflict between the area Indians and white settlers increased eventually breaking into open warfare.
1855–1858 – Yakima War – A conflict of land rights in Washington state, involving the Nisqually, Muckleshoot, Puyallup, and Klickitat tribes in the state of Washington. The central figure of the war, Nisqually Chief Leschi, was executed.
January-March, 1855 – Klamath and Salmon Indian Wars – Klamath and Salmon River War, aka Klamath War, or Red Cap War, occurred in Klamath County, California after local miners wanted Indians disarmed due to rumors of an uprising. Some of the Native Americans of the Yurok and Karok tribes refused, leading to hostilities resulting in the state militia and U.S. Army involvement.
Battle of Seattle by Emily Inez Denny
January 26, 1856 – Battle of Seattle – Native Americans attacked Seattle, Washington, as part of the Yakima War. The attackers are driven off by artillery fire and by Marines from the U.S. Navy.
February 1856 – Tintic War – A short series of skirmishes occurring in Tintic and Cedar Valleys of Utah, after the conclusion of the Walker War.
January-May,1858 – Antelope Hills Expedition – A campaign by Texas Rangers and members of allied tribes against the Comanche and Kiowa in Texas and Oklahoma.
1858 – Coeur d’Alene War – Also known as the Spokane-Coeur d’Alene-Paloos War, this second phase of the Yakima War was a series of encounters between the Coeur d’Alene, Spokane, Palouse, and Northern Paiute tribes and U.S. forces in the Washington and Idaho areas.
September 1, 1858 – Battle of Four Lakes – Also known as the Battle of Spokane Plains, the conflict was part of the Coeur d’Alene War. A force of 600 military men were sent to subdue the tribes, defeating the Indians.
1859 – Mendocino War – A conflict between settlers and Native Americans in California that took place in 1859. Several hundred Indians were killed.
Paiute Indians
1860 – Paiute War – Also known as Pyramid Lake War, the war was fought between Northern Paiute, along with some Shoshone and Bannock, and white settlers in present-day Nevada. The war culminated in two pitched battles in which approximately 80 whites were killed. Smaller raids and skirmishes continued until a cease-fire was agreed to in August 1860.
February 26, 1860 – Gunther Island Massacre – Also known as the Humboldt Bay Massacre, local white settlers, without any apparent provocation, attack four Indian villages, slaying 188 Wiyot Indians, mostly women and children in Humboldt County, California.
September 9-10, 1860 – Utter-Van Ornum Massacre – In 1860 one of the worst massacres along the Oregon Trail took place in Idaho. No other Oregon Trail wagon train suffered greater losses than the Utter-Van Ornum wagon train of 1860.
December 18, 1860 – Battle of Pease River – Battle between Comanche Indians under Peta Nocona and a detachment of Texas Rangers, resulting in the slaughter of the Indians, including women, when the Rangers caught the camp totally by surprise.
1860-1865 – California Indian Wars – Numerous battles and skirmishes against Hupa, Wiyot, Yurok, Tolowa, Nomlaki, Chimariko, Tsnungwe, Whilkut, Karuk, Wintun, and others.
1861-1864 – Navajo Wars – Occurring in Arizona and New Mexico Territories, it ended with the Long Walk of the Navajo.
1861-1900 – Apache Attacks – In New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas, numerous Apache bands rejected reservation life, and under Geronimo, Cochise, and others, staged hundreds of attacks on outposts. Geronimo finally surrendered in 1886; others fought on until 1900.
August-September, 1862 – Sioux War of 1862 – Skirmishes in the southwestern quadrant of Minnesota resulted in the deaths of several hundred white settlers. In the largest mass execution in U.S. history, 38 Dakota were hanged. About 1,600 others were sent to a reservation in present-day South Dakota.
Apache Pass, Fort Bowie, Arizona.
March 1862 – Battle of Apache Pass – Battle fought in Arizona between Apache warriors and the California Column as it marched from California to New Mexico.
October 24, 1862 – Tonkawa Massacre – Accompanied by Caddo allies, a detachment of irregular Union Indians, mainly Kickapoo, Delaware and Shawnee, attempt to destroy the Tonkawa tribe in Indian Territory. One hundred and fifty of 390 Tonkawa survive.
January 29, 1863 – Bear River Massacre – Colonel Patrick Connor leads a regiment killing at least 200 Indian men, women, and children near Preston, Idaho.
April 19, 1863 – Keyesville Massacre – White settlers kill 35 Tehachapi men in Kern County, California.
January 1864 – Battle of Canyon de Chelly – This Navajo citadel was the scene of climatic events in the conquest of the Navajo Indians by the U.S. Army Colonel Christopher C. “Kit” Carson.
Cheyenne Warriors by Edward S. Curtis
August-November, 1864 – Cheyenne War of 1864 – In the early 1860’s, the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes were suffering terrible conditions on their reservation and in the summer of 1864 began to retaliate by attacking stagecoaches and settlements along the Oregon Trail.
November 29, 1864 – Sand Creek Massacre – Militiamen kill at least 160 Cheyenne Indians at Sand Creek, Colorado.
1864-1865 – Colorado War – Clashes centered on the Colorado Eastern Plains between the U.S. Army and an alliance consisting largely of the Cheyenne and Arapaho.
1864-1868 – Snake War – Fought between U.S. military and the Northern Paiute and Shoshoni (called the Snakes by white settlers) in Oregon, Idaho, and California. The conflict began with the influx of new mines in Idaho and the Indians rebelled to white encroachment on their lands.
Geronimo and Apache prisoners on way to Florida
1864-1886 – Apache Wars – When the Mescalero Apache were placed on a reservation with Navajo at Fort Sumner, New Mexico, the war began and continued until 1886, when Geronimo surrendered.
July 28, 1864 – Battle of Killdeer Mountain – Fought in western North Dakota, this battle was an outgrowth to the 1862 Sioux discontent in Minnesota. Leading more than 3,000 volunteers, Brigadier General Alfred Sully confronted more than 1,600 Sioux in the North Dakota badlands, representing one of the largest pitched battles in the history of Plains warfare.
August-November, 1864 – Cheyenne War of 1864 – In the early 1860s, the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes were suffering terrible conditions on their reservation and in August 1864 began to retaliate by attacking stagecoaches and settlements along the Oregon Trail.
November 25-26, 1864 – First Battle of Adobe Walls – Kit Carson led an attack against a Kiowa village in the Texas Panhandle. The next day, the Kiowa, now joined with the Comanche, counter-attacked. Though thousands of Indians were attacking the Cavalry, Carson and his men were able to hold their position with two howitzers.
February 4-6, 1865 – Battle of Mud Springs – After the Sand Creek Massacre in November 1864 in Colorado, the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho moved northward raiding along the way. This skirmish, taking place in Nebraska was inconclusive although the Indians succeeded in capturing some Army horses and a herd of several hundred cattle.
Sioux Indians on horseback, by Heyn, 1899.
February 8-9, 1865 – Following the Battle of Mud Springs, the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho were pursued by the U.S. Army and engaged in an inclusive battle on the Platte River of Nebraska.
August-September, 1865 – Powder River Expedition – Also called the Powder River Campaign, Major General Grenville M. Dodge ordered the expedition as a punitive campaign against the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho for raiding along the Bozeman Trail. Fighting took place in what would become Wyoming and Montana territories. It was one of the last Indian war campaigns carried out by U.S. Volunteer soldiers.
1865-1868 – Hualapai or Walapais War – Occurring in Arizona Territory, the Hualapai were disturbed by increased settler traffic upon their lands, which caused a number of skirmishes over several years.
1865-1872 – Utah’s Black Hawk War – Including an estimated 150 battles between Mormon settlers in central Utah and members of the Ute, Paiute and Navajo tribes. The conflict resulted in the abandonment of some settlements and homes and postponed Mormon expansion in the region.
1865-1879 – Ute Wars – The Ute nation rose episodically against white settlers in Utah as the Mormons relentlessly took over their lands and exhausted their resources.
Platte Bridge Station, Casper, Wyoming by William Henry Jackson
July 26, 1865 – Battle of Platte Bridge Station – When a wagon train with 25 men under Sergeant Amos Custard’s command were traveling from Sweetwater Station east toward Platte Bridge Station in Wyoming, Sioux and Cheyenne were threatening to attack. Lieutenant Caspar Collins and a small detachment of soldiers were sent out from Platte Bridge Station to try and reach the wagon train and escort it to the station but upon crossing the bridge to the north they were overwhelmed by Sioux and Cheyenne Indians. Lieutenant Collins and several of the men were killed.
July 26, 1865 – Battle of Red Buttes – On the same day of the Battle of Platte Bridge Station, a wagon train was attacked by Sioux and Cheyenne Indians. Custer and 21 soldiers were killed.
General Patrick Connor
August 29, 1865 – Battle of Tongue River – The U.S. Cavalry under the command of General Patrick Connor attacked Chief Black Bear’s Arapaho outside present-day Ranchester, Wyoming. This attack caused the Arapaho to join forces with the Sioux and Cheyenne.
August 31, 1865 – Sawyers Fight – In retaliation for the attack on Black Bear’s village, Arapaho Indians attacked a surveying expedition on the Bozeman Trail in Wyoming.
1866-1868 – Red Cloud’s War – Lakota Chief Red Cloud conducts the most successful attacks against the U.S. Army during the Indian Wars. By the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868), the U.S. granted a large reservation to the Lakota, without military presence or oversight, no settlements, and no reserved road-building rights. The reservation included the entire Black Hills.
December 21, 1866 – Fetterman Massacre – Fought near Fort Phil Kearny, Wyoming, Sioux and Cheyenne ambushed Captain William J. Fetterman and 80 men, killing every one of them.
1867-1875 – Comanche Campaign – Major General Philip Sheridan, in command of the Department of the Missouri, instituted winter campaigning in 1868–69 as a means of rooting out the elusive Indian tribes scattered throughout the border regions of Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, and Texas.
July 2, 1867 – Kidder Massacre – Cheyenne and Sioux Indians ambushed and killed a 2nd US Cavalry detachment of eleven men and an Indian guide near Beaver Creek in Sherman County, Kansas.
August 1, 1867 – Hayfield Fight – Occurring near Fort C.F. Smith, Montana, Territory, the battle pitted a determined stand of 31 soldiers and civilians against more than 700 Sioux and Cheyenne warriors.
Wagon Box Fight Site
August 2, 1867 – Wagon Box Fight – Captain James Powell with a force of 31 men survived repeated attacks by more than 1,500 Lakota Sioux warriors under the leadership of Chiefs Red Cloud and Crazy Horse. The soldiers, who were guarding woodcutters near Fort Phil Kearny, Wyoming, took refuge in a corral formed by laying 14 wagons end-to-end in an oval configuration.
August 22, 1867 – Battle of Beaver Creek – The Eighteenth Kansas Volunteer Cavalry was attacked by Indians in Phillips County, Kansas. Two men were killed and 12 seriously wounded.
September, 1867 – Battle of Infernal Caverns – Infernal Caverns is the site of an 1867 battle between U.S. armed forces and Paiute, Pit River, and Modoc Indians.
September 17-19, 1868 – Battle of Beecher Island – Northern Cheyenne under war leader Roman Nose fought scouts of the U.S. 9th Cavalry Regiment in a nine-day battle.
Battle of Washita, Oklahoma by Steven Lang
November 27, 1868 – Washita Massacre – Lieutenant Colonel George Custer’s 7th cavalry attacked the sleeping Cheyenne village of Black Kettle near present-day Cheyenne, Oklahoma. 250 men, women and children were killed.
July 11, 1869 – Battle of Summit Springs – Cheyenne Dog Soldiers led by Tall Bull defeated by elements of the U.S. Army. Tall Bull died, reportedly killed by Buffalo Bill Cody.
January 23, 1870 – Marias Massacre – White Americans kill 173 Piegans, mainly women, children and the elderly in Montana.
April 30, 1871 – Camp Grant Massacre – A mob of angry citizens from Tucson and their Papago Indian mercenaries clubbed, shot, raped and mutilated 144 Aravaipa Apache people, mostly women and children near Camp Grant. Their actions were taken in “retaliation” for a Gila Apache raid in which six people had been killed and some livestock stolen.
Surrender of the Modoc Indians, 1873, Frank Leslies Illustrated Newspaper
1872-1873 – Modoc War – Fighting northern California and southern Oregon, Captain Jack and followers fled from their reservation to the lava beds of Tule Lake, where they held out against soldiers for six months. Major General Edward Canby was killed during a peace conference—the only general to be killed during the Indian Wars. Captain Jack was hanged for the killing.
December 28, 1872 – Salt River Canyon Battle – Also called the Skeleton Cave Battle, the U.S. Army won its most striking victory in the long history of Apache warfare at this site in Arizona. About 75 Indians died, and most of the rest were captured.
March 27, 1873 – Battle of Turret Peak – Fought in south-central Arizona, it was one of the pivotal fights that broke the backs of the Apache and Yavapai in their efforts to resist white encroachment into their lands.
1874-1875 – Red River War – Occurring in northwestern Texas William T. Sherman led a campaign of more than 14 battles against the Arapaho, Comanche, Cheyenne, and Kiowa tribes, who eventually surrendered.
Adobe Walls, Texas
June 27, 1874 – Second Battle of Adobe Walls – A combined force of some 700 Comanche, Cheyenne, Kiowa, and Arapaho warriors, led by Comanche Chief Quanah Parker and Isa-tai, attacked the buffalo camp at Adobe Walls in the Texas Panhandle. The hunters held the site and the Indians retreated, but it soon led to the Red River War.
July 4, 1874 – Bates Battle – In a narrow valley Hot Springs County, Wyoming, an Arapaho encampment was attacked by U.S. Army forces under Captain Alfred E. Bates. Bates reported his losses were four killed and five or six wounded, and 25 Arapaho were killed and 100 wounded. Other reports indicate the Arapaho suffered as few as ten casualties.
September 28, 1874 – Battle of Palo Duro Canyon – Cheyenne, Comanche, and Kiowa warriors engaged elements of the U.S. 4th Cavalry Regiment led by Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie in Palo Duro Canyon, Texas.
1876-1877 – Black Hills War – Also called the Sioux War of 1876, the Lakota under Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse fought the U.S. after repeated violations of the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie.
March 1876 – Battle of Powder River – The opening battle of the Black Hills War, between the U.S. Army and the Sioux and Cheyenne on the Powder River in Montana.
June 17, 1876 – Battle of Rosebud – The Lakota under Sitting Bull clashed with the U.S. Army column moving to reinforce Custer’s 7th Cavalry.
Battle of the Little Bighorn by C.M. Russell
June 25-26, 1876 – Battle of the Little Bighorn – Sioux and Cheyenne under the leadership of Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse defeated the 7th Cavalry under George Armstrong Custer.
July 17, 1876 – Battle at Warbonnet Creek – Three weeks after Custer’s defeat at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, the Fifth U.S. Cavalry skirmished with Cheyenne Indians from the Red Cloud Agency in northwest Nebraska.
September 8, 1876 – Battle of Slim Buttes – Captain Anson Mills’ Third Cavalry troopers attacked the Sioux village of American Horse in South Dakota. American Horse was killed in the ambush.
November 25, 1876 – Dull Knife Fight – After the Battle of the Little Bighorn the previous summer the U.S. Military began retaliatory campaigns. Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie’s 4th Cavalry surprised Dull Knife’s winter camp in Wyoming, killing 25 Indians.
1877 – Nez Perce War – Occurring in Oregon, Idaho, and Montana, the Nez Perce were fighting to keep their home in Wallowa Valley. Chief Joseph retreated from the 1st U.S. Cavalry through Idaho, Yellowstone Park, and Montana after a group of Nez Perce attacked and killed a group of Anglo settlers in early 1877. They surrendered near the border to Nelson Miles’ soldiers.
August 29, 1877 – Battle of Big Hole – One of a series of engagements between U.S. troops and the fleeing Nez Perce under Chief Joseph in southwestern Montana.
1878 – Bannock War – Elements of the 21st U.S. Infantry, 4th U.S. Artillery, and 1st U.S. Cavalry engaged the natives of southern Idaho including the Bannock and Paiute when the tribes threatened rebellion in 1878, dissatisfied with their land allotments.
1878-1879 – Cheyenne War – A conflict between the United States’ armed forces and a small group of Cheyenne families.
September 27, 1878 – Battle of Punished Woman Fork – Chiefs Dull Knife and Little Wolf of the Northern Cheyenne led their people in a rebellion and flight from confinement and starvation in Indian Territory to their homelands in the north. The Cheyenne made their final stand in Scott County, Kansas, fighting against the U.S. Cavalry.
September 30, 1878 – Last Cheyenne Raid – Cheyenne ambushed Decatur County, Kansas. A running fight with white settlers occurred. In the end, 17 settlers were killed in the ambush.
1879 – White River War – The war was fought between Ute Indians and the U.S. Army Buffalo Soldiers near the area of the White River that passes through both the states of Colorado and Utah.
January 8, 1879 – Ft Robinson Massacre – Northern Cheyenne under Dull Knife attempt to escape from confinement in Fort Robinson, Nebraska; about fifty survive.
May-August, 1879 – Sheepeater War – On May 1, 1879, three detachments of soldiers pursued the Idaho Western Shoshone throughout central Idaho during the last campaign in the Pacific Northwest.
September 29, 1879 – Meeker Massacre – One of the most violent expressions of Indian resentment toward the reservation system, Ute Indians attacked the White River Indian Agency in Rio Blanca County, Colorado, burning the buildings and killing Indian Agent, Nathan C. Meeker and nine employees.
September 29 – October 5, 1879 – Battle of Milk Creek – Following the Meeker Massacre, Ute Indians ambushed a column of 150 troops on the northern edge of the White River Reservation in Moffat County, Colorado.
April 28, 1880 – Alma Massacre – Settlers killed by Apache led by Victorio at Alma, New Mexico. Likewise, on December 19, 1885, an officer and 4 enlisted men of the 8th Cavalry Regiment killed by Apache near Alma, New Mexico.
September 1879 – November 1880 – Ute War – On September 29, 1879, some 200 men, elements of the 4th U.S. Infantry and 5th U.S. Cavalry under the command of Major T. T. Thornburgh, were attacked and besieged in Red Canyon by 300 to 400 Ute warriors. Thornburgh’s group was rescued by forces of the 5th and U.S. 9th Cavalry Regiment in early October, but not before significant loss of life had occurred. The Utes were finally pacified in November 1880.
August 30, 1881 – Battle of Cibeque – When Apache shaman, Noch-del-klinne (the prophet) began to teach dances and rites similar to the ghost dance, he was arrested and fighting erupted along Cibecue Creek, Arizona.
July 17, 1882 – Battle of Big Dry Wash – The battle of Big Dry Wash was the last major fight with hostile Apache in Arizona Territory and marked the end of an era.
September 4, 1886 – Skeleton Canyon – Geronimo and less than 40 Apache, surrendered to Brigadier General Nelson Miles at Skeleton Canyon, Arizona, marking the end of the Apache Wars.
Paiute Ghost Dance
1890–1891 – Ghost Dance War – An armed conflict between the U.S. government and Native Americans that resulted from a religious movement called the Ghost Dance. The conflict included the Wounded Knee Massacre and the Pine Ridge Campaign.
November 1890 – January 1891 – Pine Ridge Campaign – Numerous unresolved grievances led to the last major conflict with the Sioux. A lopsided engagement that involved almost half the infantry and cavalry of the Regular Army caused the surviving warriors to lay down their arms and retreat to their reservations in January 1891.
December 29, 1890 – Wounded Knee Massacre – Sitting Bull’s half-brother, Big Foot, and some 200 Sioux were killed by the U.S. 7th Cavalry. only fourteen days before, Sitting Bull had been killed with his son Crow Foot at Standing Rock Agency in a gun battle with a group of Indian police that had been sent by the American government to arrest him.
October 5, 1898 – Battle of Leech Lake – Considered the last “Indian War,” an uprising of Chippewa occurred when one of their tribe was arrested on Lake Leech in northern Minnesota.
Indian Wars List and Timeline
From the earliest European visitors to the Westward Expansion of the United States, white settlers often encountered the American Indians. Though many of these meetings were peaceful, the cultures more often clashed, resulting in hundreds of battles and skirmishes, between the Indians and pioneers encroaching upon their lands, as well as conflicts between the tribes and the U.S. Army. Though confrontations with the Indians virtually occurred since the first European explorers and settlers set foot on American soil, the “Indian War period” is primarily referred to as occurring between 1866 and 1890. These many conflicts are often overshadowed by other periods of U.S. history.
1540-1541 – Tiguex War – Fought in the winter of 1540-41 by the army of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado against the 12 pueblos of Tiwa Indians along both sides of the Rio Grande in New Mexico. It was the first war between Europeans and Native Americans in the American West.
March 22, 1622 – Jamestown Massacre – Powhatan Indians kill 347 English settlers throughout the Virginia colony during the first Powhatan War.
1622-1644 – Powhatan Wars – Following an initial period of peaceful relations in Virginia, a 12-year conflict left many natives and colonists dead.
Pequot War
1636-1637 – Pequot War – Taking place in Connecticut and Rhode Island, the death of a colonist eventually led to the destruction of 600-700 natives. The remainder were sold into slavery in Bermuda.
May 26, 1637 – Mystic Massacre – During the Pequot War, English colonists, with Mohegan and Narragansett allies, attack a large Pequot village on the Mystic River in what is now Connecticut, killing around 500 villagers.
1675-1676 – King Philip’s War – King Philip’s War erupts in New England between colonists and Native Americans as a result of tensions over colonist’s expansionist activities. The bloody war rages up and down the Connecticut River valley in Massachusetts and in the Plymouth and Rhode Island colonies, eventually resulting in 600 English colonials being killed and 3,000 Native Americans, including women and children on both sides. King Philip (the colonist’s nickname for Metacomet, chief of the Wampanoag) is hunted down and killed on August 12, 1676, in a swamp in Rhode Island, ending the war in southern New England. In New Hampshire and Maine, the Saco Indians continue to raid settlements for another year and a half.
1680-1692 – Pueblo Revolt – In Arizona and New Mexico, Pueblo Indians led by Popé, rebelled against the Spanish and lived independently for 12 years. The Spanish re-conquered in them in 1692.
1689–1697 – King William’s War – The first of the French and Indian Wars, King William’s War was fought between England, France, and their respective American Indian allies in the colonies of Canada (New France), Acadia, and New England. It was also known as the Second Indian War (the first having been King Philip’s War).
February 8, 1690 – Schenectady Massacre – French and Algonquin Indians destroy Schenectady, New York, killing 60 settlers, including ten women and at least twelve children.
1700-1800 Conflicts
February 29, 1704 – Deerfield Massacre – A force comprised of Abenaki, Kanienkehaka, Wyandot and Pocumtuck Indians, led by a small contingent of French-Canadian militia, sack the town of Deerfield, Massachusetts, killing 56 civilians and taking dozens more as captives.
1711 – Tuscarora War – Taking place in North Carolina, the Tuscarora War, led by Chief Hancock, was fought between the British, Dutch, and German settlers and the Tuscarora Native Americans. In an attempt to drive the colonists out of their territory, the tribe attacked several settlements, killing settlers and destroying farms. In 1713, James Moore and Yamasee warriors defeated the Indians.
1715-1718 – Yamasee War – In southern Carolina, an Indian confederation led by the Yamasee came close to exterminating a white settlement in their region.
French & Indian War
1754-1763 – French and Indian War – A conflict between France and Britain for possession of North America. For various motivations, most Algonquian tribes allied with the French; the Iroquois with the British.
August 1757 – Fort William Henry Massacre – Following the fall of Fort William Henry, between 70 and 180 British and colonial prisoners are killed by Indian allies of the French.
1760-1762 – Cherokee Uprising – A breakdown in relations between the British and the Cherokee leads to a general uprising in present-day Tennessee, Virginia and the Carolinas.
1763 – Pontiac’s Rebellion – In the Ohio River Valley, War Chief Pontiac and a large alliance drove out the British at every post except Detroit. After besieging the fort for five months, they withdrew to find food for the winter.
September 14, 1763 – Devil’s Hole Massacre – Seneca double ambush of a British supply train and soldiers.
December, 1763 – Conestoga Massacre – Pennsylvania settlers kill 20 peaceful Susquehannock in response to Pontiac’s Rebellion.
July 26, 1764 – Enoch Brown School Massacre – Four Delaware Indians killed a schoolmaster, 10 pupils, and a pregnant woman. Amazingly two pupils who were scalped survived.
1774 – Lord Dunmore’s War – Shawnee and Mingo Indians raided a wave of traders and settlers in the southern Ohio River Valley. Governor Dunmore of Virginia sent in 3,000 soldiers and defeated 1,000 natives.
1776-1794 – Chickamauga Wars – A series of conflicts that were a continuation of the Cherokee struggle against white encroachment. Led by Dragging Canoe, who was called the Chickamauga by colonials, the Cherokee fought white settlers in Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
July 3, 1778 – Wyoming Valley Massacre – Following a battle with rebel defenders of Forty Fort, Iroquois allies of the Loyalist forces hunt and kill those who flee, then torture to death those who surrendered.
August 31, 1778 – Stockbridge Massacre – A battle of the American Revolution that rebel propaganda portrayed as a massacre.
November 11, 1778 – Cherry Valley Massacre – An attack by British and Seneca Indian forces on a fort and village in eastern New York during the American Revolution. The town was destroyed and 16 defenders were killed.
Battle of Fallen Timbers by H. Charles McBarron, Jr, 1953
March 8, 1782 – Gnadenhutten Massacre – Nearly 100 non-combatant Christian Delaware (Lenape) Indians, mostly women, and children, were killed with hammer blows to the head by Pennsylvania militiamen.
1785-1795 – Old Northwest War – Fighting occurred in Ohio and Indiana. Following two humiliating defeats at the hands of native warriors, the Americans won a decisive victory under “Mad Anthony” Wayne at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.
1794 – Nickajack Expedition – Cherokee Chief, Dragging Canoe, and his followers, who opposed the peace, separated from the tribe and relocated to East Tennessee, where they were joined by groups of Shawnee and Creek. Engaged in numerous raids on the white settlers for several years, they used Nickajack Cave as their stronghold. In 1894, the military attacked, leaving some 70 Indians dead.
1800-1850 Conflicts
Shawnee Chief Tecumseh
November 6, 1811 – Battle of Tippecanoe – The Prophet, brother of Shawnee Chief Tecumseh, attacked Governor William Henry Harrison’s force at dawn near the Wabash and Tippecanoe Rivers in Indiana Territory. After hand-to-hand combat, the natives fled.
August 15, 1812 – Fort Dearborn Massacre – American settlers and soldiers are killed in an ambush near Fort Dearborn, at the present-day site of Chicago, Illinois.
January 22, 1813 – Battle of Frenchtown – Also known as the River Raisin Massacre, it was a severe defeat for the Americans during the War of 1812, when they attempted to retake Detroit.
August 18, 1813 – Dilbone Massacre – Three settlers killed in Miami County, Ohio.
August 30, 1813 – Fort Mims Massacre – Following the defeat at the Battle of Burnt Corn, a band of Red Sticks sack Fort Mims, Alabama, killing 400 civilians and taking 250 scalps. This action precipitates the Creek War.
Sept 19 – Oct 21, 1813 – Peoria War – An Armed conflict between the U. S. Army and the Potawatomi and the Kickapoo that took place in the Peoria County, Illinois area.
1814 – Creek War – Militiamen under Andrew Jackson broke the power of Creek raiders in Georgia and Alabama after the Creek had attacked Fort Mims and massacred settlers. They relinquished a vast land tract. (See Battle of Horseshoe Bend)
Seminole Wars
1816-1818 – First Seminole War – The Seminole, defending runaway slaves and their land in Florida, fought Andrew Jackson’s force. Jackson failed to subdue them, but forced Spain to relinquish the territory.
Spring, 1817 – Battle of Claremore Mound – Cherokee Indians wipe out Osage Indians led by Chief Clermont at Claremore Mound, Indian Territory.
April 22, 1818 – Chehaw Affair – U.S. troops attack a non-hostile village during the First Seminole War, killing an estimated 10 to 50 men, women and children.
June 2, 1823 – Arikara War – Occurring near the Missouri River in present-day South Dakota, Arikara warriors attacked a trapping expedition and the U.S. Army retaliated. It was the first military conflict between the United States and the western Native Americans.
1827 – Winnebago War – Also referred to as the Le Fèvre Indian War, this armed conflict took place in Wisconsin between the Winnebago and military forces. Losses of lives were minimal, but the war was a precedent to the much larger Black Hawk War.
Blackhawk War
1832 – Black Hawk War – Occurring in northern Illinois and southwestern Wisconsin, it was the last native conflict in the area. Led by Chief Black Hawk, the Sac and Fox tribes made an unsuccessful attempt to move back to their homeland.
May 20, 1832 – Indian Creek Massacre – Potawatomi Indians, kidnap two girls and kill 15 men, women and children north of Ottawa, Illinois.
August 1, 1832 – Battle of Bad Axe – Around 300 Indian men, women, and children are killed in Wisconsin by white soldiers.
Spring, 1833 – Cutthroat Gap Massacre – Osage Indians wiped out a Kiowa Indian village in Indian Territory.
The Seminole Wars
1835-1842 – Second Seminole War – Under Chief Osceola, the Seminole resumed fighting for their land in the Florida Everglades. Osceola was captured and they were nearly eliminated.
1836-1875 – Comanche Wars – On the southern plains, primarily in the Texas Republic, there were many conflicts with the Comanche. The U.S. Military instituted official campaigns against the Comanche in 1867.
1836 – Creek War of 1836 – Though most Creeks ad been forced to Indian Territory, those that remained rebelled when the state moved to abolish tribal governments and extend state laws over the Creeks.
May 19, 1836 – Fort Parker Massacre – Six men killed by a mixed Indian group in Limestone County, Texas. (Also see: Cynthia Ann Parker – White Woman in a Comanche World)
Osage Warrior
1837 – Osage Indian War – A number of skirmishes with the Osage Indians in Missouri.
November 10, 1837 – Battle of Stone Houses – A Texas Ranger Company pursued a band of raiding Kichai Indians up the Brazos River, where they battled near the present-day city of Windthorst, Texas.
October 5, 1838 – Killough Massacre – Indians massacre eighteen members and relatives of the Killough family in Texas.
1839 – Cherokee War – This war was a culmination of friction between the Cherokee, Kickapoo, and Shawnee Indians and the white settlers in Northeast Texas.
July 1839 – Battle of the Neches – The principal engagement of the Cherokee War, the battle culminated after the Cherokee refused to leave Texas.
March 19, 1840 – Council House Fight – A conflict between Republic of Texas officials and a Comanche peace delegation in San Antonio, Texas. When terms could not be agreed on, a conflict erupted resulting in the death of 30 Comanche leaders who had come to San Antonio under a flag of truce.
1840 – Great Raid of 1840 – The largest raid ever mounted by Native Americans on white cities. Following the Council House Fight, Comanche War Chief Buffalo Hump raised a huge war party and raided deep into white-settled areas of Southeast Texas.
August 11, 1840 – Battle of Plum Creek – The Penateka Comanche were so angry after the Council House Fight, they retaliated in the summer of 1840 by conducting multiple raids in the Guadalupe Valley. The raids culminated in a battle between the Indians and the Texas volunteer army along with the Texas Rangers near the present-day city of Lockhart, Texas. For two days they battled and the Comanche were defeated.
Whitman Massacre
November 29, 1847 – Whitman Massacre – The murder of missionaries Dr. Marcus Whitman, Mrs. Narcissa Whitman and twelve others at Walla Walla, Washington by Cayuse and Umatilla Indians, triggering the Cayuse War.
June 17, 1848 – Battle of Coon Creek – When a company of about 140 soldiers were on their way to left join the Santa Fe battalion in Chihuahua, Mexico, they were attacked near the present town of Kinsley, Kansas by some 200 Comanche and Apache Indians.
1848–1855 – Cayuse War – Occurring in Oregon Territory and Washington Territory, the conflict between the Cayuse and white settlers was caused in part by the influx of disease, and resulting in the Whitman Massacre and the Cayuse War.
1849-1863 – Navajo Conflicts – Persistent fighting between the Navajo and the U.S. Army in Arizona and New Mexico led to their expulsion and incarceration on an inhospitable reservation far from their homelands.
California Gold Rush Miners
1850-1900 Conflicts
1850-1851 – Mariposa War – Spawned by the flood of miners rushing onto their lands after the California Gold Rush, some tribes fought back including the Paiute and the Yokut.
Spring, 1850 – Bloody Island Massacre – The murder of up to 200 Pomo people on an island near Upper Lake, California by Nathaniel Lyon and his U. S. Army detachment, in retaliation for the killing of two Clear Lake settlers who had been abusing and murdering Pomo people.
1851-1853 – Utah Indian Wars – Numerous skirmishes throughout Utah which finally lead to the Walker War.
October 21, 1853 – Gunnison Massacre – In Millard County, Utah, a band of Ute Indians massacred Captain John W. Gunnison’s Pacific Railroad Survey party of seven men.
1853 – Walker War – When the Mormons began to settle on the hunting grounds of the Ute Indians of Utah, they were at first friendly, then fought back.
1854-1890 – Sioux Wars – As white settlers moved across the Mississippi River into Minnesota, South Dakota, and Wyoming, the Sioux under Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse resisted to keep their hunting grounds.
August 17, 1854 – Kaibai Creek Massacre – Forty-two Winnemem Wintu men, women and children are killed by white settlers at Kaibai Creek, California.
August 19, 1854 – Grattan Fight – Twenty-nine U.S. soldiers killed by Brulé Lakota Sioux Indians in Nebraska Territory.
August 20, 1854 – Ward Massacre – Eighteen of the 20 members of the Alexander Ward party were killed by Shoshone Indians while traveling on the Oregon Trail in western Idaho.
1855 – Snake River War – Fighting occurred at the junction of the Tucannon River and the Snake River in Washington Territory.
Klickitat brave in Oregon, 1899.
1855 – Klickitat War – This conflict occurred between the Klickitat and Cascade Indians against white settlers along the Columbia River in central Washington. When intimidation and force failed to get the Indians to cede their lands, battles erupted resulting in the Indians being removed from their lands.
1855-1858 – Third Seminole War – Under Chief Billy Bowlegs, the Seminole mounted their final stand against the U.S. in the Florida Everglades. When Bowlegs surrendered; he and others were deported to Indian Territory in Oklahoma.
1855-1856 – Rogue River Wars – In the Rogue River Valley area southern Oregon, a conflict between the area Indians and white settlers increased eventually breaking into open warfare.
1855–1858 – Yakima War – A conflict of land rights in Washington state, involving the Nisqually, Muckleshoot, Puyallup, and Klickitat tribes in the state of Washington. The central figure of the war, Nisqually Chief Leschi, was executed.
January-March, 1855 – Klamath and Salmon Indian Wars – Klamath and Salmon River War, aka Klamath War, or Red Cap War, occurred in Klamath County, California after local miners wanted Indians disarmed due to rumors of an uprising. Some of the Native Americans of the Yurok and Karok tribes refused, leading to hostilities resulting in the state militia and U.S. Army involvement.
Battle of Seattle by Emily Inez Denny
January 26, 1856 – Battle of Seattle – Native Americans attacked Seattle, Washington, as part of the Yakima War. The attackers are driven off by artillery fire and by Marines from the U.S. Navy.
February 1856 – Tintic War – A short series of skirmishes occurring in Tintic and Cedar Valleys of Utah, after the conclusion of the Walker War.
January-May,1858 – Antelope Hills Expedition – A campaign by Texas Rangers and members of allied tribes against the Comanche and Kiowa in Texas and Oklahoma.
1858 – Coeur d’Alene War – Also known as the Spokane-Coeur d’Alene-Paloos War, this second phase of the Yakima War was a series of encounters between the Coeur d’Alene, Spokane, Palouse, and Northern Paiute tribes and U.S. forces in the Washington and Idaho areas.
September 1, 1858 – Battle of Four Lakes – Also known as the Battle of Spokane Plains, the conflict was part of the Coeur d’Alene War. A force of 600 military men were sent to subdue the tribes, defeating the Indians.
1859 – Mendocino War – A conflict between settlers and Native Americans in California that took place in 1859. Several hundred Indians were killed.
Paiute Indians
1860 – Paiute War – Also known as Pyramid Lake War, the war was fought between Northern Paiute, along with some Shoshone and Bannock, and white settlers in present-day Nevada. The war culminated in two pitched battles in which approximately 80 whites were killed. Smaller raids and skirmishes continued until a cease-fire was agreed to in August 1860.
February 26, 1860 – Gunther Island Massacre – Also known as the Humboldt Bay Massacre, local white settlers, without any apparent provocation, attack four Indian villages, slaying 188 Wiyot Indians, mostly women and children in Humboldt County, California.
September 9-10, 1860 – Utter-Van Ornum Massacre – In 1860 one of the worst massacres along the Oregon Trail took place in Idaho. No other Oregon Trail wagon train suffered greater losses than the Utter-Van Ornum wagon train of 1860.
December 18, 1860 – Battle of Pease River – Battle between Comanche Indians under Peta Nocona and a detachment of Texas Rangers, resulting in the slaughter of the Indians, including women, when the Rangers caught the camp totally by surprise.
1860-1865 – California Indian Wars – Numerous battles and skirmishes against Hupa, Wiyot, Yurok, Tolowa, Nomlaki, Chimariko, Tsnungwe, Whilkut, Karuk, Wintun, and others.
1861-1864 – Navajo Wars – Occurring in Arizona and New Mexico Territories, it ended with the Long Walk of the Navajo.
1861-1900 – Apache Attacks – In New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas, numerous Apache bands rejected reservation life, and under Geronimo, Cochise, and others, staged hundreds of attacks on outposts. Geronimo finally surrendered in 1886; others fought on until 1900.
August-September, 1862 – Sioux War of 1862 – Skirmishes in the southwestern quadrant of Minnesota resulted in the deaths of several hundred white settlers. In the largest mass execution in U.S. history, 38 Dakota were hanged. About 1,600 others were sent to a reservation in present-day South Dakota.
Apache Pass, Fort Bowie, Arizona.
March 1862 – Battle of Apache Pass – Battle fought in Arizona between Apache warriors and the California Column as it marched from California to New Mexico.
October 24, 1862 – Tonkawa Massacre – Accompanied by Caddo allies, a detachment of irregular Union Indians, mainly Kickapoo, Delaware and Shawnee, attempt to destroy the Tonkawa tribe in Indian Territory. One hundred and fifty of 390 Tonkawa survive.
January 29, 1863 – Bear River Massacre – Colonel Patrick Connor leads a regiment killing at least 200 Indian men, women, and children near Preston, Idaho.
April 19, 1863 – Keyesville Massacre – White settlers kill 35 Tehachapi men in Kern County, California.
January 1864 – Battle of Canyon de Chelly – This Navajo citadel was the scene of climatic events in the conquest of the Navajo Indians by the U.S. Army Colonel Christopher C. “Kit” Carson.
Cheyenne Warriors by Edward S. Curtis
August-November, 1864 – Cheyenne War of 1864 – In the early 1860’s, the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes were suffering terrible conditions on their reservation and in the summer of 1864 began to retaliate by attacking stagecoaches and settlements along the Oregon Trail.
November 29, 1864 – Sand Creek Massacre – Militiamen kill at least 160 Cheyenne Indians at Sand Creek, Colorado.
1864-1865 – Colorado War – Clashes centered on the Colorado Eastern Plains between the U.S. Army and an alliance consisting largely of the Cheyenne and Arapaho.
1864-1868 – Snake War – Fought between U.S. military and the Northern Paiute and Shoshoni (called the Snakes by white settlers) in Oregon, Idaho, and California. The conflict began with the influx of new mines in Idaho and the Indians rebelled to white encroachment on their lands.
Geronimo and Apache prisoners on way to Florida
1864-1886 – Apache Wars – When the Mescalero Apache were placed on a reservation with Navajo at Fort Sumner, New Mexico, the war began and continued until 1886, when Geronimo surrendered.
July 28, 1864 – Battle of Killdeer Mountain – Fought in western North Dakota, this battle was an outgrowth to the 1862 Sioux discontent in Minnesota. Leading more than 3,000 volunteers, Brigadier General Alfred Sully confronted more than 1,600 Sioux in the North Dakota badlands, representing one of the largest pitched battles in the history of Plains warfare.
August-November, 1864 – Cheyenne War of 1864 – In the early 1860s, the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes were suffering terrible conditions on their reservation and in August 1864 began to retaliate by attacking stagecoaches and settlements along the Oregon Trail.
November 25-26, 1864 – First Battle of Adobe Walls – Kit Carson led an attack against a Kiowa village in the Texas Panhandle. The next day, the Kiowa, now joined with the Comanche, counter-attacked. Though thousands of Indians were attacking the Cavalry, Carson and his men were able to hold their position with two howitzers.
February 4-6, 1865 – Battle of Mud Springs – After the Sand Creek Massacre in November 1864 in Colorado, the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho moved northward raiding along the way. This skirmish, taking place in Nebraska was inconclusive although the Indians succeeded in capturing some Army horses and a herd of several hundred cattle.
Sioux Indians on horseback, by Heyn, 1899.
February 8-9, 1865 – Following the Battle of Mud Springs, the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho were pursued by the U.S. Army and engaged in an inclusive battle on the Platte River of Nebraska.
August-September, 1865 – Powder River Expedition – Also called the Powder River Campaign, Major General Grenville M. Dodge ordered the expedition as a punitive campaign against the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho for raiding along the Bozeman Trail. Fighting took place in what would become Wyoming and Montana territories. It was one of the last Indian war campaigns carried out by U.S. Volunteer soldiers.
1865-1868 – Hualapai or Walapais War – Occurring in Arizona Territory, the Hualapai were disturbed by increased settler traffic upon their lands, which caused a number of skirmishes over several years.
1865-1872 – Utah’s Black Hawk War – Including an estimated 150 battles between Mormon settlers in central Utah and members of the Ute, Paiute and Navajo tribes. The conflict resulted in the abandonment of some settlements and homes and postponed Mormon expansion in the region.
1865-1879 – Ute Wars – The Ute nation rose episodically against white settlers in Utah as the Mormons relentlessly took over their lands and exhausted their resources.
Platte Bridge Station, Casper, Wyoming by William Henry Jackson
July 26, 1865 – Battle of Platte Bridge Station – When a wagon train with 25 men under Sergeant Amos Custard’s command were traveling from Sweetwater Station east toward Platte Bridge Station in Wyoming, Sioux and Cheyenne were threatening to attack. Lieutenant Caspar Collins and a small detachment of soldiers were sent out from Platte Bridge Station to try and reach the wagon train and escort it to the station but upon crossing the bridge to the north they were overwhelmed by Sioux and Cheyenne Indians. Lieutenant Collins and several of the men were killed.
July 26, 1865 – Battle of Red Buttes – On the same day of the Battle of Platte Bridge Station, a wagon train was attacked by Sioux and Cheyenne Indians. Custer and 21 soldiers were killed.
General Patrick Connor
August 29, 1865 – Battle of Tongue River – The U.S. Cavalry under the command of General Patrick Connor attacked Chief Black Bear’s Arapaho outside present-day Ranchester, Wyoming. This attack caused the Arapaho to join forces with the Sioux and Cheyenne.
August 31, 1865 – Sawyers Fight – In retaliation for the attack on Black Bear’s village, Arapaho Indians attacked a surveying expedition on the Bozeman Trail in Wyoming.
1866-1868 – Red Cloud’s War – Lakota Chief Red Cloud conducts the most successful attacks against the U.S. Army during the Indian Wars. By the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868), the U.S. granted a large reservation to the Lakota, without military presence or oversight, no settlements, and no reserved road-building rights. The reservation included the entire Black Hills.
December 21, 1866 – Fetterman Massacre – Fought near Fort Phil Kearny, Wyoming, Sioux and Cheyenne ambushed Captain William J. Fetterman and 80 men, killing every one of them.
1867-1875 – Comanche Campaign – Major General Philip Sheridan, in command of the Department of the Missouri, instituted winter campaigning in 1868–69 as a means of rooting out the elusive Indian tribes scattered throughout the border regions of Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, and Texas.
July 2, 1867 – Kidder Massacre – Cheyenne and Sioux Indians ambushed and killed a 2nd US Cavalry detachment of eleven men and an Indian guide near Beaver Creek in Sherman County, Kansas.
August 1, 1867 – Hayfield Fight – Occurring near Fort C.F. Smith, Montana, Territory, the battle pitted a determined stand of 31 soldiers and civilians against more than 700 Sioux and Cheyenne warriors.
Wagon Box Fight Site
August 2, 1867 – Wagon Box Fight – Captain James Powell with a force of 31 men survived repeated attacks by more than 1,500 Lakota Sioux warriors under the leadership of Chiefs Red Cloud and Crazy Horse. The soldiers, who were guarding woodcutters near Fort Phil Kearny, Wyoming, took refuge in a corral formed by laying 14 wagons end-to-end in an oval configuration.
August 22, 1867 – Battle of Beaver Creek – The Eighteenth Kansas Volunteer Cavalry was attacked by Indians in Phillips County, Kansas. Two men were killed and 12 seriously wounded.
September, 1867 – Battle of Infernal Caverns – Infernal Caverns is the site of an 1867 battle between U.S. armed forces and Paiute, Pit River, and Modoc Indians.
September 17-19, 1868 – Battle of Beecher Island – Northern Cheyenne under war leader Roman Nose fought scouts of the U.S. 9th Cavalry Regiment in a nine-day battle.
Battle of Washita, Oklahoma by Steven Lang
November 27, 1868 – Washita Massacre – Lieutenant Colonel George Custer’s 7th cavalry attacked the sleeping Cheyenne village of Black Kettle near present-day Cheyenne, Oklahoma. 250 men, women and children were killed.
July 11, 1869 – Battle of Summit Springs – Cheyenne Dog Soldiers led by Tall Bull defeated by elements of the U.S. Army. Tall Bull died, reportedly killed by Buffalo Bill Cody.
January 23, 1870 – Marias Massacre – White Americans kill 173 Piegans, mainly women, children and the elderly in Montana.
April 30, 1871 – Camp Grant Massacre – A mob of angry citizens from Tucson and their Papago Indian mercenaries clubbed, shot, raped and mutilated 144 Aravaipa Apache people, mostly women and children near Camp Grant. Their actions were taken in “retaliation” for a Gila Apache raid in which six people had been killed and some livestock stolen.
Surrender of the Modoc Indians, 1873, Frank Leslies Illustrated Newspaper
1872-1873 – Modoc War – Fighting northern California and southern Oregon, Captain Jack and followers fled from their reservation to the lava beds of Tule Lake, where they held out against soldiers for six months. Major General Edward Canby was killed during a peace conference—the only general to be killed during the Indian Wars. Captain Jack was hanged for the killing.
December 28, 1872 – Salt River Canyon Battle – Also called the Skeleton Cave Battle, the U.S. Army won its most striking victory in the long history of Apache warfare at this site in Arizona. About 75 Indians died, and most of the rest were captured.
March 27, 1873 – Battle of Turret Peak – Fought in south-central Arizona, it was one of the pivotal fights that broke the backs of the Apache and Yavapai in their efforts to resist white encroachment into their lands.
1874-1875 – Red River War – Occurring in northwestern Texas William T. Sherman led a campaign of more than 14 battles against the Arapaho, Comanche, Cheyenne, and Kiowa tribes, who eventually surrendered.
Adobe Walls, Texas
June 27, 1874 – Second Battle of Adobe Walls – A combined force of some 700 Comanche, Cheyenne, Kiowa, and Arapaho warriors, led by Comanche Chief Quanah Parker and Isa-tai, attacked the buffalo camp at Adobe Walls in the Texas Panhandle. The hunters held the site and the Indians retreated, but it soon led to the Red River War.
July 4, 1874 – Bates Battle – In a narrow valley Hot Springs County, Wyoming, an Arapaho encampment was attacked by U.S. Army forces under Captain Alfred E. Bates. Bates reported his losses were four killed and five or six wounded, and 25 Arapaho were killed and 100 wounded. Other reports indicate the Arapaho suffered as few as ten casualties.
September 28, 1874 – Battle of Palo Duro Canyon – Cheyenne, Comanche, and Kiowa warriors engaged elements of the U.S. 4th Cavalry Regiment led by Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie in Palo Duro Canyon, Texas.
1876-1877 – Black Hills War – Also called the Sioux War of 1876, the Lakota under Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse fought the U.S. after repeated violations of the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie.
March 1876 – Battle of Powder River – The opening battle of the Black Hills War, between the U.S. Army and the Sioux and Cheyenne on the Powder River in Montana.
June 17, 1876 – Battle of Rosebud – The Lakota under Sitting Bull clashed with the U.S. Army column moving to reinforce Custer’s 7th Cavalry.
Battle of the Little Bighorn by C.M. Russell
June 25-26, 1876 – Battle of the Little Bighorn – Sioux and Cheyenne under the leadership of Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse defeated the 7th Cavalry under George Armstrong Custer.
July 17, 1876 – Battle at Warbonnet Creek – Three weeks after Custer’s defeat at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, the Fifth U.S. Cavalry skirmished with Cheyenne Indians from the Red Cloud Agency in northwest Nebraska.
September 8, 1876 – Battle of Slim Buttes – Captain Anson Mills’ Third Cavalry troopers attacked the Sioux village of American Horse in South Dakota. American Horse was killed in the ambush.
November 25, 1876 – Dull Knife Fight – After the Battle of the Little Bighorn the previous summer the U.S. Military began retaliatory campaigns. Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie’s 4th Cavalry surprised Dull Knife’s winter camp in Wyoming, killing 25 Indians.
1877 – Nez Perce War – Occurring in Oregon, Idaho, and Montana, the Nez Perce were fighting to keep their home in Wallowa Valley. Chief Joseph retreated from the 1st U.S. Cavalry through Idaho, Yellowstone Park, and Montana after a group of Nez Perce attacked and killed a group of Anglo settlers in early 1877. They surrendered near the border to Nelson Miles’ soldiers.
August 29, 1877 – Battle of Big Hole – One of a series of engagements between U.S. troops and the fleeing Nez Perce under Chief Joseph in southwestern Montana.
1878 – Bannock War – Elements of the 21st U.S. Infantry, 4th U.S. Artillery, and 1st U.S. Cavalry engaged the natives of southern Idaho including the Bannock and Paiute when the tribes threatened rebellion in 1878, dissatisfied with their land allotments.
1878-1879 – Cheyenne War – A conflict between the United States’ armed forces and a small group of Cheyenne families.
September 27, 1878 – Battle of Punished Woman Fork – Chiefs Dull Knife and Little Wolf of the Northern Cheyenne led their people in a rebellion and flight from confinement and starvation in Indian Territory to their homelands in the north. The Cheyenne made their final stand in Scott County, Kansas, fighting against the U.S. Cavalry.
September 30, 1878 – Last Cheyenne Raid – Cheyenne ambushed Decatur County, Kansas. A running fight with white settlers occurred. In the end, 17 settlers were killed in the ambush.
1879 – White River War – The war was fought between Ute Indians and the U.S. Army Buffalo Soldiers near the area of the White River that passes through both the states of Colorado and Utah.
January 8, 1879 – Ft Robinson Massacre – Northern Cheyenne under Dull Knife attempt to escape from confinement in Fort Robinson, Nebraska; about fifty survive.
May-August, 1879 – Sheepeater War – On May 1, 1879, three detachments of soldiers pursued the Idaho Western Shoshone throughout central Idaho during the last campaign in the Pacific Northwest.
September 29, 1879 – Meeker Massacre – One of the most violent expressions of Indian resentment toward the reservation system, Ute Indians attacked the White River Indian Agency in Rio Blanca County, Colorado, burning the buildings and killing Indian Agent, Nathan C. Meeker and nine employees.
September 29 – October 5, 1879 – Battle of Milk Creek – Following the Meeker Massacre, Ute Indians ambushed a column of 150 troops on the northern edge of the White River Reservation in Moffat County, Colorado.
April 28, 1880 – Alma Massacre – Settlers killed by Apache led by Victorio at Alma, New Mexico. Likewise, on December 19, 1885, an officer and 4 enlisted men of the 8th Cavalry Regiment killed by Apache near Alma, New Mexico.
September 1879 – November 1880 – Ute War – On September 29, 1879, some 200 men, elements of the 4th U.S. Infantry and 5th U.S. Cavalry under the command of Major T. T. Thornburgh, were attacked and besieged in Red Canyon by 300 to 400 Ute warriors. Thornburgh’s group was rescued by forces of the 5th and U.S. 9th Cavalry Regiment in early October, but not before significant loss of life had occurred. The Utes were finally pacified in November 1880.
August 30, 1881 – Battle of Cibeque – When Apache shaman, Noch-del-klinne (the prophet) began to teach dances and rites similar to the ghost dance, he was arrested and fighting erupted along Cibecue Creek, Arizona.
July 17, 1882 – Battle of Big Dry Wash – The battle of Big Dry Wash was the last major fight with hostile Apache in Arizona Territory and marked the end of an era.
September 4, 1886 – Skeleton Canyon – Geronimo and less than 40 Apache, surrendered to Brigadier General Nelson Miles at Skeleton Canyon, Arizona, marking the end of the Apache Wars.
Paiute Ghost Dance
1890–1891 – Ghost Dance War – An armed conflict between the U.S. government and Native Americans that resulted from a religious movement called the Ghost Dance. The conflict included the Wounded Knee Massacre and the Pine Ridge Campaign.
November 1890 – January 1891 – Pine Ridge Campaign – Numerous unresolved grievances led to the last major conflict with the Sioux. A lopsided engagement that involved almost half the infantry and cavalry of the Regular Army caused the surviving warriors to lay down their arms and retreat to their reservations in January 1891.
December 29, 1890 – Wounded Knee Massacre – Sitting Bull’s half-brother, Big Foot, and some 200 Sioux were killed by the U.S. 7th Cavalry. only fourteen days before, Sitting Bull had been killed with his son Crow Foot at Standing Rock Agency in a gun battle with a group of Indian police that had been sent by the American government to arrest him.
October 5, 1898 – Battle of Leech Lake – Considered the last “Indian War,” an uprising of Chippewa occurred when one of their tribe was arrested on Lake Leech in northern Minnesota.
Georgia Indian Tribes
The following tribes at one time are recorded in history as having resided within the present state of Georgia. If the tribe name is in bold, then Georgia is the primary location known for this tribe, otherwise we provide the tribes specifics as it pertains to Georgia and then provide a link to the main tribal page.
The following tribes at one time are recorded in history as having resided within the present state of Georgia. If the tribe name is in bold, then Georgia is the primary location known for this tribe, otherwise we provide the tribes specifics as it pertains to Georgia and then provide a link to the main tribal page.
- Apalachee Indians
After the English and Creeks destroyed the Apalachee towns in Florida in 1704, they established a part of the tribe in a village not far below the present Augusta. In 1715, when the Yamasee war broke out, these Apalachee joined the hostile Indians and went to the Chattahoochee to live near that faction of the Lower Creeks which was favorable to Spain. Soon afterward, however, the English faction gained the ascendency among the Creeks, and the Apalachee returned to Florida. - Apalachicola Indians
- Chatot Indians
Some of these Indians lived at times in the southwest corner of this State. - Cherokee Indians
From early times the Cherokee occupied the northern and northeastern parts of Georgia, though from certain place names it seems probable that they had been preceded in that territory by Creeks. - Chiaha Indians
- Chickasaw Indians
A band of Chickasaw lived near Augusta from about 1723 to the opening of the American Revolution, and later they were for some time among the Lower Creeks. - Creek Indians
A part, and perhaps a large part, of the Indians who afterward constituted the Creek Confederacy were living in the sixteenth century in what the Spaniards called the province of Guale on the’ present Georgia coast. Some of them moved inland in consequence of difficulties with the Whites, and in the latter half of the seventeenth century most of those afterward known as Lower Creeks were upon Chattahoochee and Ocmulgee Rivers, the latter river being then called Ocheese Creek, from the Hitchiti name given to the Indians living on it. After the Yamasee War (1715) all assembled upon Chattahoochee River and continued there, part on the Georgia side of the river, part on the Alabama side, until they removed to the present Oklahoma early in the nineteenth century. (See Creek Confederacy and Muskogee) - Guale Indians
- Hitchiti Indians
- Kasihta Indians
One of the most important divisions of the Muskogee, possibly identical with the Cofitachequi of the De Soto narratives. - Muskogee Indians
- Oconee Indians
- Okmulgee Indians
- Osochi Indians
A division of the Lower Creeks which lived for a time in southwestern Georgia. - Sawokli Indians
A division of the Creeks belonging to the group of towns that spoke the Hitchiti language. - Shawnee Indians
The Shawnee band which settled near Augusta concerns South Carolina and Georgia almost equally. Their history has already been given in treating the tribes of the former State. (See also Tennessee.) - Tamathli Indians
- Timucua Indians
One contact between the Timucua Indians and Georgia is mentioned later in connection with the Osochi. When the Spaniards first came in contact with them, the Timucua occupied not merely northern and central Florida but Cumberland Island and a part of the adjacent mainland. The Timucua evidently withdrew from this territory as a result of pressure exerted by northern Indians in the latter part of the seventeenth century or the very beginning of the eighteenth. (See Utina) - Yamasee Indians
- Yuchi Indians
- Yufera Indians
I have a map as well that is not digital but need to post. This is crucial info to knowing lineage and not those fake DNA tests. Excellent post!This is sum good information!! If you know where your great or great great grandparents lived or where they come from, this will give you an idea what tribe your apart of..
QUEEN CALAFIA THE BLACK AMAZON QUEEN AFTER WHOM CALIFORNIA IS NAMED: BLACK CALIFORNIAN OF THE BLACK MOJAVE NATION WHO LIVED IN CALIFORNIA BEFORE THE SPANISH INVASION
The original peoples of California included two races. They were the descendants of prehistoric Negroid peoples like the picture on the right of a Black Mojave warrior. The other group were members of Mongoloid "Indian" peoples who also existed in the region along with people who migrated from the Canada/Alaska region.
HISTORY OF THE ORIGINAL BLACK CALIFORNIANS
The history of the original Black peoples of California is not mentioned in most American history books. The term "Indian" is used to classify all the peoples found in the Americas when Columbus arrived. Yet, Columbus and his men as well as people like Balboa and Peter Matyr do mention "Ethiopians" in the Caribbean, Darien region of Panama, the cost of South America, California and other areas. These Blacks were the "Descendants of Ham" specifically those with black skins and kinky/curly hair that the Spaniards and other Europeans were instructed to capture and enslave, then Christianize based on the edict of the mid 1400's, (see "A History of the African-Olmecs," published by 1stBooks Library, 1663 Liberty Drive Suite 200, Bloomington, Indiana 47404 USA www.1stbooks.com 1(800) 839-8640.
The Black Californians were not American Indians but people identical to Africans in race and features. In fact they looked like Africans and somewhat like Melanesians. The history of the Black Californians may appear to be shrowded in mystry, however that is merely due to the attempt to keep their history obscure by not mentioning that the original people of California included Blacks as well as American Indians who existed there for thousands of years before Columbus.
Yet, the Black Californians are not unknown to the Spanish invaders and colonialists whose descendants are part of the populations of Mexico, California and the South Western US and who are no different from the settlers and colonialists from England, France, Portugl and elsewhere. In fact, the Spaniard who mentions the legend of Queen Califia as being a Black Amazon Queen who ruled a land at the edge of the world, where the women were warriors and decked in gold, was Ordonez de Montalvo.
Montalvo is said to have gotten a book that mentions Queen Calafia and her Black Amazon warriors. Some historians have speculated that Queen Calafia was probably one of the female African Amazon Queens similar to those who ruled in Dahomey and parts of West Africa for some time, or perhaps the Nubian Queens of Nubia during the period of 100 BC to 200 AD or sometime during that period.
The Spanish explorers along the California Coast were among the first to see and enquire about the Black Californians. One source maintains that the Spaniards upon arriving along the California shores saw a number of Black people with ships. They asked the Indians who were they and the Indians replied that these "black, curlyhaired people," were of the land (California) and traded with people across the sea (the Pacific Ocean) by sailing back and forth.
Where were these Black Californians going to in the Pacific? It is most likely they were trading with people in Hawaii or as far as the South Pacific where the Black population has always been very large and very widespread. In fact when Magellan arrived in the Filipines, there were large numbers of Negritos who were well organized and according to some sources a strong population (African Presence in Early Asia, edt. by Ivan Van Sertima, Runoko Rashidi).
Black traders and Black Africoid peoples who had been in the Americas for thousands of years were also spread in the Mississippi Valley, the Eastern US, Mexico and the Caribbean. Among these groups were the Washitaw, the Yamassee, Guale, Califunami, Chuarras of Brazil, Afro-Dariente of Panama, Choco of Colombia, Olmec (Mende-Shi) of Mexico, Guanini of South America and others. I. Rafinesque mentions a number of Black groups in his work, "The Primitive Black Nations of America," (Fiends Society, Philadelphia, 1833). One things is certain, the Europeans, Americans, Spaniards never mistook American Indians for Negro Africans. They always referred the Blacks of the Negro African type as "Moors" "Blacks" or "Ethiopians." The Indians were sometimes mistaken for Asians or Indians from India.
WHAT HAPPENED TO THE BLACK CALIFORNIANS AND ORIGINAL BLACKS OF CALIFORNIA AND THE SOUTH WEST
The Blacks of California became victims of Spanish colonialism. Many were enslaved and worked on the ranches of the Californios. Others became part of the Black population of California, while some continued fighting untill the mid to late 1800's.
Like the California Indians of the Mongoloid Indian race who were hunted down in California at fifty dollars a head (the same genocidal practice was carried against Black Aboriginals in Australia) and who were made to reject their Indian culture to become 'Mexicans and accept European ways, the Black Californians suffered a similar fate.
One book shows a picture of Black Californians being marched into slavery by Spanish Californios on horsehack. There is no doubt that since California was basically like the rest of the United States and partially segregated up to 1965, the Black Californians who were found in the state when the Spanish arrived and who continued to survive did not disappear. As the picture above shows, these Blacks were similar in features to Blacks from Africa, therefore it would have been easy for them to have become part of the Black population of California at a time when the Black population was as high as forty percent in some areas. Hence, the Black Aboriginal population of California continued to exist and Blacks of California today are their descendants, including the descendants of Africans from Mexico and freed slaves and free Blacks from the Eastern and Southern US.
The original peoples of California included two races. They were the descendants of prehistoric Negroid peoples like the picture on the right of a Black Mojave warrior. The other group were members of Mongoloid "Indian" peoples who also existed in the region along with people who migrated from the Canada/Alaska region.
HISTORY OF THE ORIGINAL BLACK CALIFORNIANS
The history of the original Black peoples of California is not mentioned in most American history books. The term "Indian" is used to classify all the peoples found in the Americas when Columbus arrived. Yet, Columbus and his men as well as people like Balboa and Peter Matyr do mention "Ethiopians" in the Caribbean, Darien region of Panama, the cost of South America, California and other areas. These Blacks were the "Descendants of Ham" specifically those with black skins and kinky/curly hair that the Spaniards and other Europeans were instructed to capture and enslave, then Christianize based on the edict of the mid 1400's, (see "A History of the African-Olmecs," published by 1stBooks Library, 1663 Liberty Drive Suite 200, Bloomington, Indiana 47404 USA www.1stbooks.com 1(800) 839-8640.
The Black Californians were not American Indians but people identical to Africans in race and features. In fact they looked like Africans and somewhat like Melanesians. The history of the Black Californians may appear to be shrowded in mystry, however that is merely due to the attempt to keep their history obscure by not mentioning that the original people of California included Blacks as well as American Indians who existed there for thousands of years before Columbus.
Yet, the Black Californians are not unknown to the Spanish invaders and colonialists whose descendants are part of the populations of Mexico, California and the South Western US and who are no different from the settlers and colonialists from England, France, Portugl and elsewhere. In fact, the Spaniard who mentions the legend of Queen Califia as being a Black Amazon Queen who ruled a land at the edge of the world, where the women were warriors and decked in gold, was Ordonez de Montalvo.
Montalvo is said to have gotten a book that mentions Queen Calafia and her Black Amazon warriors. Some historians have speculated that Queen Calafia was probably one of the female African Amazon Queens similar to those who ruled in Dahomey and parts of West Africa for some time, or perhaps the Nubian Queens of Nubia during the period of 100 BC to 200 AD or sometime during that period.
The Spanish explorers along the California Coast were among the first to see and enquire about the Black Californians. One source maintains that the Spaniards upon arriving along the California shores saw a number of Black people with ships. They asked the Indians who were they and the Indians replied that these "black, curlyhaired people," were of the land (California) and traded with people across the sea (the Pacific Ocean) by sailing back and forth.
Where were these Black Californians going to in the Pacific? It is most likely they were trading with people in Hawaii or as far as the South Pacific where the Black population has always been very large and very widespread. In fact when Magellan arrived in the Filipines, there were large numbers of Negritos who were well organized and according to some sources a strong population (African Presence in Early Asia, edt. by Ivan Van Sertima, Runoko Rashidi).
Black traders and Black Africoid peoples who had been in the Americas for thousands of years were also spread in the Mississippi Valley, the Eastern US, Mexico and the Caribbean. Among these groups were the Washitaw, the Yamassee, Guale, Califunami, Chuarras of Brazil, Afro-Dariente of Panama, Choco of Colombia, Olmec (Mende-Shi) of Mexico, Guanini of South America and others. I. Rafinesque mentions a number of Black groups in his work, "The Primitive Black Nations of America," (Fiends Society, Philadelphia, 1833). One things is certain, the Europeans, Americans, Spaniards never mistook American Indians for Negro Africans. They always referred the Blacks of the Negro African type as "Moors" "Blacks" or "Ethiopians." The Indians were sometimes mistaken for Asians or Indians from India.
WHAT HAPPENED TO THE BLACK CALIFORNIANS AND ORIGINAL BLACKS OF CALIFORNIA AND THE SOUTH WEST
The Blacks of California became victims of Spanish colonialism. Many were enslaved and worked on the ranches of the Californios. Others became part of the Black population of California, while some continued fighting untill the mid to late 1800's.
Like the California Indians of the Mongoloid Indian race who were hunted down in California at fifty dollars a head (the same genocidal practice was carried against Black Aboriginals in Australia) and who were made to reject their Indian culture to become 'Mexicans and accept European ways, the Black Californians suffered a similar fate.
One book shows a picture of Black Californians being marched into slavery by Spanish Californios on horsehack. There is no doubt that since California was basically like the rest of the United States and partially segregated up to 1965, the Black Californians who were found in the state when the Spanish arrived and who continued to survive did not disappear. As the picture above shows, these Blacks were similar in features to Blacks from Africa, therefore it would have been easy for them to have become part of the Black population of California at a time when the Black population was as high as forty percent in some areas. Hence, the Black Aboriginal population of California continued to exist and Blacks of California today are their descendants, including the descendants of Africans from Mexico and freed slaves and free Blacks from the Eastern and Southern US.
The History of Queen Califia and the California Blacks
Ancient American Empire of Xi: Queen of Diamonds and Gold; Califia and the California Blacks
Queen Califia Cave Art
“Whoever controls the images, control your self-esteem, self respect, and self development, whoever controls your history controls your vision. — Dr. Leonard Jeffries
*In the continental United States of America, there were Africans who came before slavery, before Columbus, and thousands of years before Jesus Christ. In many cases, these Blacks and other indigenous nations established thriving civilizations in ancient America. Queen Califia and the California Blacks were one such ancient Black nation.
Reigning over the Empire of Xi, in the ancient kingdom of Utla, the nation of AtLan, was the great queen of gold and diamonds, ruler of the California Blacks. Queen Califia, decorated warrior general – mother, was the grand and beautiful royal leader in the beloved, wealthy, and powerful, Land of the Blacks:
A civilization with an abundance of natural resources: gold, diamonds, vast quantities of precious stones and metals, with territory spanning thousands and thousands of miles throughout California. From the coast of San Francisco to Bahia Mexico, as far inland as Colorado, Utah, and all the Pacific Ocean Island Nations including Hawaii, and Australia. Places where most of the original inhabitants were aborigine, black and brown people of color.
Queen Califia was a powerful General Queen, a strategic opponent, who commanded and maintained a fleet of ships while ushering in a time of peace in all surrounding lands.
The robust California Blacks were master trainers and lovers of exotic animals with developed skills. They were able to teach themselves to defend, utilizing a real force of domesticated and trained “Griffins” and eagles, snakes, tigers and bears. Along with other species native to California and Africa, these unusual creatures were trained to protect the land and its people.
So loved, respected and powerful was the Queen, she could project her imperial will over the seas of the Mediterranean. A master of communication and commerce, trading gold tip spears, gold, diamonds, precious stones, furs, food, plants, rare birds and animals as well as maintaining cultural and trading contacts with Africa, Australia and the Pacific Islands. This great lady ruler also successfully defended her empire during wars in the Mediterranean Sea and Anatolia, as well as against the Byzantine Empire and in Southern Europe.
Queen Califia and the mighty empire of the California Blacks, a people whose civilization and history has been lost to time and space through a deliberate destructive conspiracy of lies, secrets and deaths perpetrated by evil invaders of ancient America.
To say they came before Columbus is an understatement. They came thousands and thousands of years before. Many historians, including the renowned expert and father of Ancient Africa Studies, Dr. Van Sertima, author of the bestselling book, They Came Before Columbus; David Imhotep Ph.D. (The First Americans Were Black) and Cheik Anta Diop (The African Origin of Civilization, Myth or Reality) among many, all concur and prove that the first Africans started arriving in ancient times, between 56,000 – 100,000 years ago. It is now also an archeological fact that the true original people of the Americas included many nations and the Black Californians were one of them as decedents of the Olmecs, West Africa Manding, Egyptians, (Kings of Kush) and the First Emperor of China, (Shangdi’s, Shang Dynasty.)
Other ancient civilizations occupying California in the distant pass include members of Black Mojave and Washitaw mound builders as well as the following:
Ancient indigenous Black Nations of America California Blacks Olmecs
Washitaw – Mound Builders Louisiana / Mid-West
Yamassee South East
Iroquois
Cherokee
Black Foot
Pequot and Mohegans Connecticut
Darienite Panama
History of the California Blacks
The mighty California Blacks were a powerful military savvy civilization, with shipbuilders, priest-scientist, traders, and empire builders. These elite seafarers traveled all over the globe trading in gold tip spears and precious stones. Masters of commerce, this highly sophisticated society practiced, as part of their religious ceremonies, astronomy, (tracking celestial Sirius star-systems) scared science, geometry and mathematics. They were nautical wizards of longitude – latitude, master builders of complex housing, political systems and captains of the open seas as well as arts and music enthusiasts. They were also worshippers of the Egyptian Gods Horus, Osiris, Isis, Wadgyt, Sun God, Ra and the universality of the concept of Maat, and how ethical behavior was the norm. The Goddess Maat represents truth, justice, righteousness and world order, the supreme ethical paradigm that dictated the behavior of the California Blacks and the civilizations of ancient America.
The California Blacks, Xi Empire was ruled by a succession of Queens, as was the custom in many ancient African Nations. This unfamiliar practice observed by the naive Spaniards is surely how the myth of the nymph, Amazon Queen legend, who hated and killed all baby boys and men, came into existence. Their matriarch societies were based on maternal values; decedents and relationships were determined through the female line, a practice that was very common in West Africa and throughout the ancient world.
READ RELATED STORY: HISTORY OF THE CALIFORNIA BLACKS NATION CALIFIANS (KHALIFIANS) THE FIRST AMERICANS
Ancient America Sacred Cave Art – Yellow Diamond Harvest
This remarkable multi-cultural, highly spiritual religious civilization thrived for thousands of years and is duly noted in several recent discoveries, including ancient cave art dating back tens of thousands of years. Over 100,000 cave and rock art pictures, symbols and ancient artifacts can be found at Crystal Lake California, now a restricted United States army base, and thousands of newly discovered cave and rock art found in 2014 in the highlands of Mexico. The photos of recently discovered cave art show one thing for sure. They were not a hunter-gather tribe, but a complex highly advanced thriving civilization that prospered way before the arrival of any Europeans, Indians or Clovis people.
Through our high tech in-house CGI experiment, conducted recently on ancient cave -art, we were able to back engineer some of the ancient art. What we discovered was truly amazing. CGI graphic art techniques were used thousands of years ago. Some art appears to be created using computer generated technology and 21st Century animation. What is revealed is intriguing and very surprising, a unique first-hand glimpse at life in ancient America. Some have low pixilation. However, all are in beautiful color, depicting cave art/pictures of worship, sacred ancient and Egyptian symbols, including the cross, snakes, Gods, marriage ceremonies, underwater fishing, cave diving, scuba mask, electricity, guns, gold mining, and other high tech capabilities.
The California Blacks lived by a strict moral ethics code: living in harmony with the people, animals, land, sea, earth, sun and heavenly planets. Their wood-built homes, official dwellings and structures were arranged in granger and complicity, from holy sites, cliffs residents, monumental buildings, scared caves and mounds that were enhanced and decorated magnetically in silk, gold, diamonds and precious stones. Some appear to have illumination, electricity.
Queen Califia and the California Blacks were all directly or indirectly related to our decedents of the Olmecs of South America, West African Nile Valley, Kings of Kush, Emperor Remises the Great and the Yellow Emperor, Shangdi of China.
The Black Mound Builders of the Washitaw – Murrs (Ouachita Moors) Nation, an independent civilization, are also descendants of the Olmecs who successfully lived alongside of their cousins (California Blacks) in peace, while engaging in boat building, seafaring, trade and commerce for thousands of years.
Descendants of Ham
The history of the original Black people of California is not mentioned in most American history books. The term “Indian” is used to classify all of the people found in the Americas when Columbus arrived. Yet, Columbus and his men, as well as people like Balboa and Peter Matyr, do mention “Ethiopians” in the Caribbean’s, Darien region of Panama, the coast of South America, California and other areas. According to these invaders, these Black indigenous people were the decedents of Ham” (a Bible reference). It was specifically those with black skin and kinky/curly hair that the Spaniards and other Europeans were instructed to capture, kill and/or enslave rather than Christianize them, based on the edict of the mid 1400s. (“A History of the African Olmecs”) published by 1stBook Library.
The Black Californians were not American Indians but indigenous people of African ancestry. As a mixed culture, they closely resembled today’s African Americans and Melanesians from the Pacific Islands. The history of the Black Californians appear to be conveniently erased, ignored, shrouded in mystery, myth and ignorance, all in an effort to keep our history obscure by not mentioning that the original people of California and America were Black and American Indians whose civilizations existed together peacefully thousands of years before Columbus.
Yet the Black Californians are not unknown to the Spanish invaders and colonialists whose defendants are part of the population of Mexico, California and the South Western United States and who are no different from the settlers and colonialists from Spain, England, France, Portugal, and elsewhere. In fact, the Spaniards who mention the legend of Queen Califia, “who ruled a land at the edge of the world, where the women were warriors and decked in gold,” was in fact a Black California – Olmec Queen. Descendants of great Kings of Kush and Queens of West Africa, Olmecs, Nubia, Egypt and China. The California Black’s, kingdom of Utala – AtLan, (California) numbered over 10 million, with the population exceeding 25 million, including Pacific Islands Nations, Hawaii and South America.
The Spanish explorers along the California coast were among the first to see and enquire about the Black Californians. Upon arriving along the California shores, they saw a number of Black people with ships. They asked the Indians who they were and the Indians replied that these “Black curly-haired people” were of the land of California” and traded with people across the sea (the Pacific Ocean) by sailing back and forth.
Where were these Black Californians going in the Pacific? They were trading with island nations, people in Hawaii and throughout the South Pacific where the Black population has always been very large and widespread. In fact, when Magellan arrived in the Philippines, there were large numbers of Negritos who where well organized and had a strong population. Black traders and Black Africoid who had been in the Americas for thousands of years were also spread in the Mississippi Valley, Eastern United States, Mexico and the Caribbean.
Among the groups were the Washitaw, the Yamassee, Guale, Califunami, Chuarras of Brazil, Afro- Dariente of Panama, Choco of Columbia, Olmec, Mende – Shi of Mexico, (West African, Egyptian, Black Chinese) and Guanini of South America, among others.
Rafinesque mentions a number of Black groups in his work, “The Primitive Black Nations of America.” (Friends of the Society of Philadelphia, 1833) One thing is for certain. The Europeans, Americans and Spaniards never mistook American Indians for Black Americans. They always referred to Blacks, Negro African types, as “Moors” “Blacks,” Ethiopians and the People of the Queen of Sheba.
Olmec Cave Art King of the California Blacks
Ancient America Sacred Cave Art – Modern World Meets Ancient Hunters
What happen to the California Blacks and the Original Blacks of California and the South West?
The extermination of the Blacks of California was indeed the largest act of genocide in American history. “The idea, strange as it may appear, never occurred to them (the Indians) that they were suffering for the great cause of civilization, which, in the natural course of things, must exterminate Indians.”
– Special Agent J. Ross Brown, Indian Affairs
California was one of the last areas of the New World to be colonized. It wasn’t until 1769 that the first mission, Mission San Diego de Alcala’ in California, the first of 21 missions, would become the primary means for the Spaniards to subjugate the ingenious. The leader of this effort was Junipero Serra. Disputing what history books currently tell you, the missions were coercive religious, forced labor camps. Through bribes, military, and even onslaught European diseases (that usually targeted children), the colonizers ensured that eventually sick and desperate natives would come to the mission for help. The people taken there had their children taken from them and harsh, manual labor was the rule. Beatings and filthy living conditions were common. The death rate at the mission was appalling. By 1818 the percentage of Natives who died in the missions reached 86 percent. Over 81,000 “converts” eventually managed to successfully flee the missions. Soon after, there were Indian revolts. The San Diego mission was burnt down in 1775 during the Kumeyaay rebellion. Mohave Indians destroyed two missions in a dramatic revolt in 1781. Santa Barbra and Santa Inez Missions were destroyed in 1824. In 1834, Mexican Governor Jose Figueroa freed the Indians from the mission system and stripped the friars of their power. More than 100,000 native people had died because of the mission system. But that did not mean things went back to how it was before. The Spanish didn’t give the land back. Instead, the land was distributed to political insiders and a system of ranches developed. By the start of the Mexican-American War, 26 million acres were controlled by just 813 ranchers.
Gold Rush and Genocide
After Johann Sutter became a Mexican citizen in 1840, he was awarded a land grant of 48,827 acres by the government. On June 18, 8141, he and his partner James Marshall began Sutter’s Mill shortly after. While building the sawmill, Marshall discovered gold the morning of January 24, 1848. History in the state of California would forever change for the original natives of the land. Ironically the gold rush that followed didn’t enrich either man and they too were forced off the land by whites more ruthless than them. In the chaos of the gold rush, almost all of the enslaved indigenous people and Indians were killed. Many others escaped.
In 1840, there were 5 million California Blacks and only about 4,000 Europeans in California. Only 400 of them were Americans. Now a hoard of 100,000 adventurers, gold seekers and murderous criminals descended on California. The authorities were completely overwhelmed. The Natives faced catastrophe of biblical proportions.
Numerous vigilante type paramilitary troops were established whose principle occupation seems to have been to kill Blacks/Indians, and kidnap their children. Groups such as the Humbolt Home Guard, the Eel River Minutemen and the Placer Blades, among others, terrorized local natives. The local authorities not only ignored the genocide in their midst, they encouraged it. Rewards ranged from $5 for every severed head in Shasta City in 1855 to 25 cents for a scalp in Honey Lake in 1863. One resident of Shasta City wrote about how he remembers seeing men bring mules to town, each laden with eight to 10 native heads. Other laws called for collective punishment for the whole village for crimes committed up to the destruction of the entire village and all of its inhabitants. These policies led to the extinction of as many as 150 Native nations.
Mighty Black Californians Last Stand
The Empire of the California Blacks became a victim of Spanish colonialism, European expansion, the slave trade and gold rush. Many communities, men, women and children were killed, enslaved and worked on ranches in California. Others were shipped to Europe and down south as part of the slave market. Other California Blacks courageously continued fighting and defending their ancestral land until the mid to late 1870’s. The California Gold rush would strike the fatal blow and the impending destruction of the California’s first civilization, Utla – At – Lan; Land of the Blacks.
Like the California Mongoloid Indian races who were hunted down and killed in California at 50 dollars a head, the same genocidal practice was carried out against Black Aboriginals in Australia who were made to reject their Native culture and accept European ways. The Black Californians suffered a similar fate.
During the 1800’s, after many years of war with Spanish invaders of the Southwest, with Mexico and the United States, the empire of the California Blacks was completely diminished. The survivors blended into the African American Black population of California and the United States. Their descendants still exist among millions of Black Californians today. One such family is the Blackmons of California.
One book shows a picture of Black Californians being marched into slavery by Spanish Californians on horseback. There is no doubt that since California was basically like the rest of the United States and partially segregated up until 1965, the Black Californians who were found in the state when the Spanish arrived and continued to survive did not disappear. As the pictures above show, these Blacks were similar in features to Black Africans. Therefore, it would be easy for them to have become a part of the Black population of California at a time when the Black population was as high as 40 percent of the area. Hence, the Black Aboriginal population of California today is the decedents, including the decedents of Africans from Mexico, freed slaves and free Blacks from the Eastern and Southern United States.
Black Caliornia SACRED Cave Art – Cross of Egypt
Ancient America Sacred Art – AtLand King of Glod & Diamonds
In retrospect, it is important that Blacks in California understand our true history and realize that California was named after a real Black Queen, a descendant of one of the first Black civilizations of the Americas, the Olmec and that the original inhabitants of California, the people who have any claim and rights to any land, are the American Indians and Black Californians who are in fact part of the Black population of California today. The problem with the condition of Blacks in California today is the lack of knowledge of ownership and the lack of knowledge of history. Blacks in California see their economic, political and numerical power and influence as a shrinking minority in California, a state that has a significant Black population for hundreds and thousands of years. Propositions that seek to hide the racial and ethnic origin of people continue the same genocidal policy carried out against the American Indians and Black Californians.
The shrinking numbers of Blacks in California (from 40 percent before the 1800’s to 7 percent today) has to do with the deliberate policies of genocide being implemented against Blacks by political trickery and policies. In fact, propositions that aim to not classify race and ethnicity in California were just as evil as the “hygiene” program taken in Europe during World War II to determine who is “Aryan” and who was not. This time, the aim is to “Anglicize” the population, yet maintain a strata caste system where Blacks after losing their identity and culture, will be nothing but inferior copies of Anglo-Saxons. The Anglo-Saxons will continue to dominate and maintain their culture, but Blacks will simply be copying them while being kept down without a culture, without an identity and, in many ways, without the essence and soul of what makes a people unique.
Facts, artifacts, pyramids, ancient bones, stone statues, cave art, calendars and archeological discoveries within the last decade have all concluded that there was indeed a Black warrior nation in California and they were at war with the Spanish, Mexican Spaniards and U.S. settlers until the mid 1800’s. According to the Black Book (Random House, 1974), the settlers and their armies were “relieved” when the Black Californians were pacified.
The time has come for today’s Black Californians to know their history and understand who was always in this state and who came during the period of colonialism. The idea that a person from another land whose ancestors commit genocide against American Indians and Black Californians has more right to any part of California is utterly absurd. There is no difference between a Spanish invader and settler and a French or Dutch one. They are still settlers and they cannot claim what is not theirs. Perhaps that is why the history of the Black Californians has been obscured and perhaps that is why the genocide policies against Black Californians has led to a decrease in the population and here are the reasons it should never be left out of history.
Olmec – CALI BLACKS Sacred Tablet Cave Art in Color
Earthy Paradise: Island of California
“Now I tell you about the strangest thing ever found anywhere in written text or in human memory… I tell you that on the right side of the Indies there was an island called California, which was very close to the region of the Earthly Paradise. This island is inhabited by black women, and there are no males among at all, for their life styles was similar to that of the Amazons. The island was made up of the wildest cliffs and the sharpest precipices found anywhere in the world. These women had energetic bodies and courageous, ardent hearts, and they were very strong. Their armor was made entirely of gold- which was the only metal found on the island- as were the trappings on the fierce beast that they rode once they were tamed. They lived in very well designed caves. They had many ships they used to sail forth on their trade expeditions.”
Garcia Rodriquez de Montalco, Las Sergas de Esplandian. 15th Century Explorer, tells the story of a people who reign, grew and prospered in a land for thousands of years. Whose population at it heights is said to be well over 35 million, that were very wealthy, religious, and spiritual, worshiping the earth, stars, sun, moon and planets. Adventurous people, highly educated, family oriented, lovers of the entire universe, plants, animals and the weak. These multi cultural decedents of the Olmecs, West Africans, Egyptians and Black Chinese, bloodline and ancestry date back and encompass the greatest ancient civilization that has ever existed on the planet.
The West Africa’s Mali Empire (City of Gold) The 19th – 25th Egyptian Dynasty of the Kings of Kush, Remises the Great and the First Empire of China’s Shang Dynasty, also known in pop culture as the Yellow Emperor. The discovery of an unknown people, omitted and lost to history, who have been relegated to myth, fairytale or alien encounter all over the world. An advance civilization that is responsible for the most monumental feats ever achieved. With advance technology, mathematics, geometry, astronomy and sacred science, stone and mound building skills, that has never been duplicated or explained. They say history is recorded by the winners. However in this instance, that is a rule that needs to be challenged.
Ancient American history started thousands of years before Columbus and the many people who populated the land and past existence is everywhere in Pyramids, Stone Heads, bones, tools, maps, calendars, mummies, cave art and many more artifact examples, However all seems to go unnoticed or written off as “origin unknown.” This lost civilization was a global people and the original ancient Americans were decedents of the Olmecs, whose bloodline flows through West Africa, Egypt and China. The founding fathers and mothers of the great kingdom of Utla (America) the Empire, of AtLan, on the island of California.
* The original name Utala, a Kushite word meaning to vacate. When Northern and Southern Utla united as one nation (Southern and Northern California) the plural name was used. The word for Utla became AtLan. Two feathers adorned the California Blacks headdress, confirming the union of North and South America as was the custom when upper and lower ancient Egypt allied.
* This educational presentation was produced to dispel the European myths, deceptions, collusion, and intentional cover-ups of one of the Greatest Civilizations that ever lived. A forgotten chapter in ancient American history whose time has come.
Queen Califia and the California Blacks
False Euro Myths
Not Indians
No culture of civilization
Headhunters
Cannibals
Did not practice human sacrifice
Naked savages
Only a women civilization
Amazon Women killer of boy children
Hated men
Killed and captured all men
Raided other civilizations
Nymphs
Did not practice human sacrifice
We’re not hunter gathers
Catholic Church Genocide – The Doctrine of Discovery and US Expansion
“No person shall be… deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law…”
This idea, which is a bedrock of American democracy, is from the Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which was completed in 1787. The same year the U.S. government enacted the Northwest Ordinance, which created the first organized territory out of the region that is today Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin.
Among the other regulations, the ordinance set forth a guiding principle for the treatment of Native Americans and their lands:
“The utmost good faith shall always be observed towards the Indians; their lands and property shall never be taken without their consent; and, in their property rights and liberty shall never be invaded or disrupted.” Just seven years later, in 1794, the U.S. Government sent a regiment led by General “Mad” Anthony Wayne to conquer a confederation of American Indian tribes attempting to keep their lands. At the battle of the Fallen Timbers, a band of 800 plus Native Americans were slaughtered and 5,000 acres of crops were destroyed. The tribes in the region were forced to sign a treaty that limited them to the northern region of what is today’s Ohio.
In 1802 President Thomas Jefferson signed the Georgia Compact, which stated that in exchange for land (what is today’s Alabama and Mississippi), the federal government would remove all American Indians within the territory of Georgia as soon as it could be done reasonably and peacefully. By 1830, the government passed the Indian Removal Act, which authorized the president to remove the remaining Eastern Indians to lands west of the Mississippi. Between 1838 and 1839, under President Andrew Jackson, 15,000 Cherokee Indian nations were forcefully taken from their land, herded into makeshift forts, and made to march, some in chains for thousands of miles to present day Oklahoma. Over 4,000 Cherokees died from hunger, disease and execution on what they called Nunna daul Tsuny or the Trail of Tears. By the late 1840’s, almost all Native Americans had been removed and moved to lands west of the Mississippi.
Although the Black Californian warriors continued fighting well into the late 1890’s.
Christian Empire
In 1095, at the beginning of the Crusades, Pope Urban II issued an edict-the Papal Bull Terra Nullius (meaning empty land). It gave the kings and princes of Europe the right to “discover” or claim land in non-Christian areas. The policy was extended in 1492 when Pope Nicholas V issued the bull Romanus Pontifex, declaring war against all non-Christians throughout the world and authorizing the conquest of their nations and territories. These edicts treated non-Christians as uncivilized and subhuman, and therefore without rights to any land or nation. Christians claimed a God given right to take control of all lands and used the idea to justify war, colonization and even slavery.
By the time Christopher Columbus set sail in 1492, this Doctrine of Discovery was a well-established idea in the Christian world. When he reached the Americas, Columbus performed ceremonies to “take possession” of all lands “discovered,” meaning all territory not occupied by Christians. Upon his return to Europe in 1493, Pope Alexander VI issued the bull Inter Cetera, granting Spain the right to conquer the lands that Columbus had already “discovered” and all lands that he might come upon in the future. The decree also expressed the Pope’s wish to convert the natives of these lands to Catholicism in order to strengthen the “Christian Empire.”
In 1573 Pope Paul II issued the papal bull Sublimis Deus, which denounced the idea that Native Americans “should be treated like irrational animals and used exclusively for our profit and service,” and Pope Urban VIII (1623-1644) formally excommunicated anyone still holding Indian slaves. By this time however, the Doctrine of Discovery was deeply rooted and led nonetheless to the conquering of non-Christian lands and people in every corner of the earth. Although the United States was founded on freedom from such tyranny, the idea of white people and Christians having certain divine rights was nevertheless ingrained in this young nation’s policies. The slave trade and centuries of violence against Black people depended upon the idea that non-Whites were less human. The theft of indigenous people’s lands require the same justification.
In 1823, the Doctrine of Discovery was written into US law as a way to deny rights to Native Americans.
In 1845, a democratic leader and prominent editor named John L O’Sullivan gave the Doctrine of Discovery a uniquely American flavor when he coined the term, Manifest Destiny to defend United States expansion and claims of new territory:
…the right of our manifest destiny to over spread and to possess the whole continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty …is right such as that of the tree to the space of air and earth suitable for the full expansion of its principle and destiny of growth. The idea of Manifest Destiny was published in newspapers and debated by politicians. It furthered the scenes among U.S. citizens of an inevitable or natural right to expand the notion and to spread “freedom and democracy” (although only deemed capable of self government, which certainly did not include Blacks or other Native people.) Weather called the Doctrine of Discovery or Manifest Destiny the principles that stimulated US thirst for land that have been disastrous for natives, indigenous Blacks, and many others both in North America and abroad who lost life, liberty, and property as a result of United States expansion. The history of Christian law helps us understand how our leaders, many considered heroes and role models today, undertook monstrous acts in the name of liberty.
Olmec Egyptian Goddess Isis Cave Art
California Black’s Cave Art – Olmec Heads
Although hundreds of thousands of ancient rock art and cave drawing exists in Crystal Lake California — dating back 50,000 years or more (a protected military base) — all up and down the California coast in Mexico, Utah, New Mexico and Colorado, among many other sites, official authorities continue to have no idea who created them. Although many discoveries over the last decade has indisputable proof and evidence of a great civilization of Blacks living in America for thousands of years.
The famous Olmec Heads in Mexico, countless art, sculptures, figurines and archeological discoveries. The fact that the academic community and mainstream media continue to ignore this head in the sand approach to discovery is suspect. They refuse to acknowledge or disclose the true creators of the indigenous, the great Black civilization that founded America and accomplished these great feats.
One technological breakthrough I accomplished by using a Mac computer in an effort to study and find the royal color of purple color pallets, symbols, pics and other related cave-rock art with similarities in order to identify the origins of vast amounts of ancient art in so many places. So we back engineering some of the photo graphic cave art. While the assumption is they were scientifically advance, their technology could possibly be compatible to our tech in the 21st century. And indeed it was. They were not only tech savvy but also 3D, CGI, Computer Generated Illustration savvy. The cave art remarkably demonstrates animation and reappearing art. To my discovery, ancient images did appear showing lifestyle, religious ceremonies, the gods, worship, activities, work, family and the wealth and opulence of the ancient Blacks of America. You will surely be as amazed as I was to see what the cave and rock art revealed.
Although the amazing digital graph photos, DPI’s are low, the color graphics are clear enough to see the life and times of the ancients and one thing is for sure. They were not hunter – gathers.
Ancient American Empire of Xi: Queen of Diamonds and Gold; Califia and the California Blacks
Queen Califia Cave Art
“Whoever controls the images, control your self-esteem, self respect, and self development, whoever controls your history controls your vision. — Dr. Leonard Jeffries
*In the continental United States of America, there were Africans who came before slavery, before Columbus, and thousands of years before Jesus Christ. In many cases, these Blacks and other indigenous nations established thriving civilizations in ancient America. Queen Califia and the California Blacks were one such ancient Black nation.
Reigning over the Empire of Xi, in the ancient kingdom of Utla, the nation of AtLan, was the great queen of gold and diamonds, ruler of the California Blacks. Queen Califia, decorated warrior general – mother, was the grand and beautiful royal leader in the beloved, wealthy, and powerful, Land of the Blacks:
A civilization with an abundance of natural resources: gold, diamonds, vast quantities of precious stones and metals, with territory spanning thousands and thousands of miles throughout California. From the coast of San Francisco to Bahia Mexico, as far inland as Colorado, Utah, and all the Pacific Ocean Island Nations including Hawaii, and Australia. Places where most of the original inhabitants were aborigine, black and brown people of color.
Queen Califia was a powerful General Queen, a strategic opponent, who commanded and maintained a fleet of ships while ushering in a time of peace in all surrounding lands.
The robust California Blacks were master trainers and lovers of exotic animals with developed skills. They were able to teach themselves to defend, utilizing a real force of domesticated and trained “Griffins” and eagles, snakes, tigers and bears. Along with other species native to California and Africa, these unusual creatures were trained to protect the land and its people.
So loved, respected and powerful was the Queen, she could project her imperial will over the seas of the Mediterranean. A master of communication and commerce, trading gold tip spears, gold, diamonds, precious stones, furs, food, plants, rare birds and animals as well as maintaining cultural and trading contacts with Africa, Australia and the Pacific Islands. This great lady ruler also successfully defended her empire during wars in the Mediterranean Sea and Anatolia, as well as against the Byzantine Empire and in Southern Europe.
Queen Califia and the mighty empire of the California Blacks, a people whose civilization and history has been lost to time and space through a deliberate destructive conspiracy of lies, secrets and deaths perpetrated by evil invaders of ancient America.
To say they came before Columbus is an understatement. They came thousands and thousands of years before. Many historians, including the renowned expert and father of Ancient Africa Studies, Dr. Van Sertima, author of the bestselling book, They Came Before Columbus; David Imhotep Ph.D. (The First Americans Were Black) and Cheik Anta Diop (The African Origin of Civilization, Myth or Reality) among many, all concur and prove that the first Africans started arriving in ancient times, between 56,000 – 100,000 years ago. It is now also an archeological fact that the true original people of the Americas included many nations and the Black Californians were one of them as decedents of the Olmecs, West Africa Manding, Egyptians, (Kings of Kush) and the First Emperor of China, (Shangdi’s, Shang Dynasty.)
Other ancient civilizations occupying California in the distant pass include members of Black Mojave and Washitaw mound builders as well as the following:
Ancient indigenous Black Nations of America California Blacks Olmecs
Washitaw – Mound Builders Louisiana / Mid-West
Yamassee South East
Iroquois
Cherokee
Black Foot
Pequot and Mohegans Connecticut
Darienite Panama
History of the California Blacks
The mighty California Blacks were a powerful military savvy civilization, with shipbuilders, priest-scientist, traders, and empire builders. These elite seafarers traveled all over the globe trading in gold tip spears and precious stones. Masters of commerce, this highly sophisticated society practiced, as part of their religious ceremonies, astronomy, (tracking celestial Sirius star-systems) scared science, geometry and mathematics. They were nautical wizards of longitude – latitude, master builders of complex housing, political systems and captains of the open seas as well as arts and music enthusiasts. They were also worshippers of the Egyptian Gods Horus, Osiris, Isis, Wadgyt, Sun God, Ra and the universality of the concept of Maat, and how ethical behavior was the norm. The Goddess Maat represents truth, justice, righteousness and world order, the supreme ethical paradigm that dictated the behavior of the California Blacks and the civilizations of ancient America.
The California Blacks, Xi Empire was ruled by a succession of Queens, as was the custom in many ancient African Nations. This unfamiliar practice observed by the naive Spaniards is surely how the myth of the nymph, Amazon Queen legend, who hated and killed all baby boys and men, came into existence. Their matriarch societies were based on maternal values; decedents and relationships were determined through the female line, a practice that was very common in West Africa and throughout the ancient world.
READ RELATED STORY: HISTORY OF THE CALIFORNIA BLACKS NATION CALIFIANS (KHALIFIANS) THE FIRST AMERICANS
Ancient America Sacred Cave Art – Yellow Diamond Harvest
This remarkable multi-cultural, highly spiritual religious civilization thrived for thousands of years and is duly noted in several recent discoveries, including ancient cave art dating back tens of thousands of years. Over 100,000 cave and rock art pictures, symbols and ancient artifacts can be found at Crystal Lake California, now a restricted United States army base, and thousands of newly discovered cave and rock art found in 2014 in the highlands of Mexico. The photos of recently discovered cave art show one thing for sure. They were not a hunter-gather tribe, but a complex highly advanced thriving civilization that prospered way before the arrival of any Europeans, Indians or Clovis people.
Through our high tech in-house CGI experiment, conducted recently on ancient cave -art, we were able to back engineer some of the ancient art. What we discovered was truly amazing. CGI graphic art techniques were used thousands of years ago. Some art appears to be created using computer generated technology and 21st Century animation. What is revealed is intriguing and very surprising, a unique first-hand glimpse at life in ancient America. Some have low pixilation. However, all are in beautiful color, depicting cave art/pictures of worship, sacred ancient and Egyptian symbols, including the cross, snakes, Gods, marriage ceremonies, underwater fishing, cave diving, scuba mask, electricity, guns, gold mining, and other high tech capabilities.
The California Blacks lived by a strict moral ethics code: living in harmony with the people, animals, land, sea, earth, sun and heavenly planets. Their wood-built homes, official dwellings and structures were arranged in granger and complicity, from holy sites, cliffs residents, monumental buildings, scared caves and mounds that were enhanced and decorated magnetically in silk, gold, diamonds and precious stones. Some appear to have illumination, electricity.
Queen Califia and the California Blacks were all directly or indirectly related to our decedents of the Olmecs of South America, West African Nile Valley, Kings of Kush, Emperor Remises the Great and the Yellow Emperor, Shangdi of China.
The Black Mound Builders of the Washitaw – Murrs (Ouachita Moors) Nation, an independent civilization, are also descendants of the Olmecs who successfully lived alongside of their cousins (California Blacks) in peace, while engaging in boat building, seafaring, trade and commerce for thousands of years.
Descendants of Ham
The history of the original Black people of California is not mentioned in most American history books. The term “Indian” is used to classify all of the people found in the Americas when Columbus arrived. Yet, Columbus and his men, as well as people like Balboa and Peter Matyr, do mention “Ethiopians” in the Caribbean’s, Darien region of Panama, the coast of South America, California and other areas. According to these invaders, these Black indigenous people were the decedents of Ham” (a Bible reference). It was specifically those with black skin and kinky/curly hair that the Spaniards and other Europeans were instructed to capture, kill and/or enslave rather than Christianize them, based on the edict of the mid 1400s. (“A History of the African Olmecs”) published by 1stBook Library.
The Black Californians were not American Indians but indigenous people of African ancestry. As a mixed culture, they closely resembled today’s African Americans and Melanesians from the Pacific Islands. The history of the Black Californians appear to be conveniently erased, ignored, shrouded in mystery, myth and ignorance, all in an effort to keep our history obscure by not mentioning that the original people of California and America were Black and American Indians whose civilizations existed together peacefully thousands of years before Columbus.
Yet the Black Californians are not unknown to the Spanish invaders and colonialists whose defendants are part of the population of Mexico, California and the South Western United States and who are no different from the settlers and colonialists from Spain, England, France, Portugal, and elsewhere. In fact, the Spaniards who mention the legend of Queen Califia, “who ruled a land at the edge of the world, where the women were warriors and decked in gold,” was in fact a Black California – Olmec Queen. Descendants of great Kings of Kush and Queens of West Africa, Olmecs, Nubia, Egypt and China. The California Black’s, kingdom of Utala – AtLan, (California) numbered over 10 million, with the population exceeding 25 million, including Pacific Islands Nations, Hawaii and South America.
The Spanish explorers along the California coast were among the first to see and enquire about the Black Californians. Upon arriving along the California shores, they saw a number of Black people with ships. They asked the Indians who they were and the Indians replied that these “Black curly-haired people” were of the land of California” and traded with people across the sea (the Pacific Ocean) by sailing back and forth.
Where were these Black Californians going in the Pacific? They were trading with island nations, people in Hawaii and throughout the South Pacific where the Black population has always been very large and widespread. In fact, when Magellan arrived in the Philippines, there were large numbers of Negritos who where well organized and had a strong population. Black traders and Black Africoid who had been in the Americas for thousands of years were also spread in the Mississippi Valley, Eastern United States, Mexico and the Caribbean.
Among the groups were the Washitaw, the Yamassee, Guale, Califunami, Chuarras of Brazil, Afro- Dariente of Panama, Choco of Columbia, Olmec, Mende – Shi of Mexico, (West African, Egyptian, Black Chinese) and Guanini of South America, among others.
Rafinesque mentions a number of Black groups in his work, “The Primitive Black Nations of America.” (Friends of the Society of Philadelphia, 1833) One thing is for certain. The Europeans, Americans and Spaniards never mistook American Indians for Black Americans. They always referred to Blacks, Negro African types, as “Moors” “Blacks,” Ethiopians and the People of the Queen of Sheba.
Olmec Cave Art King of the California Blacks
Ancient America Sacred Cave Art – Modern World Meets Ancient Hunters
What happen to the California Blacks and the Original Blacks of California and the South West?
The extermination of the Blacks of California was indeed the largest act of genocide in American history. “The idea, strange as it may appear, never occurred to them (the Indians) that they were suffering for the great cause of civilization, which, in the natural course of things, must exterminate Indians.”
– Special Agent J. Ross Brown, Indian Affairs
California was one of the last areas of the New World to be colonized. It wasn’t until 1769 that the first mission, Mission San Diego de Alcala’ in California, the first of 21 missions, would become the primary means for the Spaniards to subjugate the ingenious. The leader of this effort was Junipero Serra. Disputing what history books currently tell you, the missions were coercive religious, forced labor camps. Through bribes, military, and even onslaught European diseases (that usually targeted children), the colonizers ensured that eventually sick and desperate natives would come to the mission for help. The people taken there had their children taken from them and harsh, manual labor was the rule. Beatings and filthy living conditions were common. The death rate at the mission was appalling. By 1818 the percentage of Natives who died in the missions reached 86 percent. Over 81,000 “converts” eventually managed to successfully flee the missions. Soon after, there were Indian revolts. The San Diego mission was burnt down in 1775 during the Kumeyaay rebellion. Mohave Indians destroyed two missions in a dramatic revolt in 1781. Santa Barbra and Santa Inez Missions were destroyed in 1824. In 1834, Mexican Governor Jose Figueroa freed the Indians from the mission system and stripped the friars of their power. More than 100,000 native people had died because of the mission system. But that did not mean things went back to how it was before. The Spanish didn’t give the land back. Instead, the land was distributed to political insiders and a system of ranches developed. By the start of the Mexican-American War, 26 million acres were controlled by just 813 ranchers.
Gold Rush and Genocide
After Johann Sutter became a Mexican citizen in 1840, he was awarded a land grant of 48,827 acres by the government. On June 18, 8141, he and his partner James Marshall began Sutter’s Mill shortly after. While building the sawmill, Marshall discovered gold the morning of January 24, 1848. History in the state of California would forever change for the original natives of the land. Ironically the gold rush that followed didn’t enrich either man and they too were forced off the land by whites more ruthless than them. In the chaos of the gold rush, almost all of the enslaved indigenous people and Indians were killed. Many others escaped.
In 1840, there were 5 million California Blacks and only about 4,000 Europeans in California. Only 400 of them were Americans. Now a hoard of 100,000 adventurers, gold seekers and murderous criminals descended on California. The authorities were completely overwhelmed. The Natives faced catastrophe of biblical proportions.
Numerous vigilante type paramilitary troops were established whose principle occupation seems to have been to kill Blacks/Indians, and kidnap their children. Groups such as the Humbolt Home Guard, the Eel River Minutemen and the Placer Blades, among others, terrorized local natives. The local authorities not only ignored the genocide in their midst, they encouraged it. Rewards ranged from $5 for every severed head in Shasta City in 1855 to 25 cents for a scalp in Honey Lake in 1863. One resident of Shasta City wrote about how he remembers seeing men bring mules to town, each laden with eight to 10 native heads. Other laws called for collective punishment for the whole village for crimes committed up to the destruction of the entire village and all of its inhabitants. These policies led to the extinction of as many as 150 Native nations.
Mighty Black Californians Last Stand
The Empire of the California Blacks became a victim of Spanish colonialism, European expansion, the slave trade and gold rush. Many communities, men, women and children were killed, enslaved and worked on ranches in California. Others were shipped to Europe and down south as part of the slave market. Other California Blacks courageously continued fighting and defending their ancestral land until the mid to late 1870’s. The California Gold rush would strike the fatal blow and the impending destruction of the California’s first civilization, Utla – At – Lan; Land of the Blacks.
Like the California Mongoloid Indian races who were hunted down and killed in California at 50 dollars a head, the same genocidal practice was carried out against Black Aboriginals in Australia who were made to reject their Native culture and accept European ways. The Black Californians suffered a similar fate.
During the 1800’s, after many years of war with Spanish invaders of the Southwest, with Mexico and the United States, the empire of the California Blacks was completely diminished. The survivors blended into the African American Black population of California and the United States. Their descendants still exist among millions of Black Californians today. One such family is the Blackmons of California.
One book shows a picture of Black Californians being marched into slavery by Spanish Californians on horseback. There is no doubt that since California was basically like the rest of the United States and partially segregated up until 1965, the Black Californians who were found in the state when the Spanish arrived and continued to survive did not disappear. As the pictures above show, these Blacks were similar in features to Black Africans. Therefore, it would be easy for them to have become a part of the Black population of California at a time when the Black population was as high as 40 percent of the area. Hence, the Black Aboriginal population of California today is the decedents, including the decedents of Africans from Mexico, freed slaves and free Blacks from the Eastern and Southern United States.
Black Caliornia SACRED Cave Art – Cross of Egypt
Ancient America Sacred Art – AtLand King of Glod & Diamonds
In retrospect, it is important that Blacks in California understand our true history and realize that California was named after a real Black Queen, a descendant of one of the first Black civilizations of the Americas, the Olmec and that the original inhabitants of California, the people who have any claim and rights to any land, are the American Indians and Black Californians who are in fact part of the Black population of California today. The problem with the condition of Blacks in California today is the lack of knowledge of ownership and the lack of knowledge of history. Blacks in California see their economic, political and numerical power and influence as a shrinking minority in California, a state that has a significant Black population for hundreds and thousands of years. Propositions that seek to hide the racial and ethnic origin of people continue the same genocidal policy carried out against the American Indians and Black Californians.
The shrinking numbers of Blacks in California (from 40 percent before the 1800’s to 7 percent today) has to do with the deliberate policies of genocide being implemented against Blacks by political trickery and policies. In fact, propositions that aim to not classify race and ethnicity in California were just as evil as the “hygiene” program taken in Europe during World War II to determine who is “Aryan” and who was not. This time, the aim is to “Anglicize” the population, yet maintain a strata caste system where Blacks after losing their identity and culture, will be nothing but inferior copies of Anglo-Saxons. The Anglo-Saxons will continue to dominate and maintain their culture, but Blacks will simply be copying them while being kept down without a culture, without an identity and, in many ways, without the essence and soul of what makes a people unique.
Facts, artifacts, pyramids, ancient bones, stone statues, cave art, calendars and archeological discoveries within the last decade have all concluded that there was indeed a Black warrior nation in California and they were at war with the Spanish, Mexican Spaniards and U.S. settlers until the mid 1800’s. According to the Black Book (Random House, 1974), the settlers and their armies were “relieved” when the Black Californians were pacified.
The time has come for today’s Black Californians to know their history and understand who was always in this state and who came during the period of colonialism. The idea that a person from another land whose ancestors commit genocide against American Indians and Black Californians has more right to any part of California is utterly absurd. There is no difference between a Spanish invader and settler and a French or Dutch one. They are still settlers and they cannot claim what is not theirs. Perhaps that is why the history of the Black Californians has been obscured and perhaps that is why the genocide policies against Black Californians has led to a decrease in the population and here are the reasons it should never be left out of history.
Olmec – CALI BLACKS Sacred Tablet Cave Art in Color
Earthy Paradise: Island of California
“Now I tell you about the strangest thing ever found anywhere in written text or in human memory… I tell you that on the right side of the Indies there was an island called California, which was very close to the region of the Earthly Paradise. This island is inhabited by black women, and there are no males among at all, for their life styles was similar to that of the Amazons. The island was made up of the wildest cliffs and the sharpest precipices found anywhere in the world. These women had energetic bodies and courageous, ardent hearts, and they were very strong. Their armor was made entirely of gold- which was the only metal found on the island- as were the trappings on the fierce beast that they rode once they were tamed. They lived in very well designed caves. They had many ships they used to sail forth on their trade expeditions.”
Garcia Rodriquez de Montalco, Las Sergas de Esplandian. 15th Century Explorer, tells the story of a people who reign, grew and prospered in a land for thousands of years. Whose population at it heights is said to be well over 35 million, that were very wealthy, religious, and spiritual, worshiping the earth, stars, sun, moon and planets. Adventurous people, highly educated, family oriented, lovers of the entire universe, plants, animals and the weak. These multi cultural decedents of the Olmecs, West Africans, Egyptians and Black Chinese, bloodline and ancestry date back and encompass the greatest ancient civilization that has ever existed on the planet.
The West Africa’s Mali Empire (City of Gold) The 19th – 25th Egyptian Dynasty of the Kings of Kush, Remises the Great and the First Empire of China’s Shang Dynasty, also known in pop culture as the Yellow Emperor. The discovery of an unknown people, omitted and lost to history, who have been relegated to myth, fairytale or alien encounter all over the world. An advance civilization that is responsible for the most monumental feats ever achieved. With advance technology, mathematics, geometry, astronomy and sacred science, stone and mound building skills, that has never been duplicated or explained. They say history is recorded by the winners. However in this instance, that is a rule that needs to be challenged.
Ancient American history started thousands of years before Columbus and the many people who populated the land and past existence is everywhere in Pyramids, Stone Heads, bones, tools, maps, calendars, mummies, cave art and many more artifact examples, However all seems to go unnoticed or written off as “origin unknown.” This lost civilization was a global people and the original ancient Americans were decedents of the Olmecs, whose bloodline flows through West Africa, Egypt and China. The founding fathers and mothers of the great kingdom of Utla (America) the Empire, of AtLan, on the island of California.
* The original name Utala, a Kushite word meaning to vacate. When Northern and Southern Utla united as one nation (Southern and Northern California) the plural name was used. The word for Utla became AtLan. Two feathers adorned the California Blacks headdress, confirming the union of North and South America as was the custom when upper and lower ancient Egypt allied.
* This educational presentation was produced to dispel the European myths, deceptions, collusion, and intentional cover-ups of one of the Greatest Civilizations that ever lived. A forgotten chapter in ancient American history whose time has come.
Queen Califia and the California Blacks
False Euro Myths
Not Indians
No culture of civilization
Headhunters
Cannibals
Did not practice human sacrifice
Naked savages
Only a women civilization
Amazon Women killer of boy children
Hated men
Killed and captured all men
Raided other civilizations
Nymphs
Did not practice human sacrifice
We’re not hunter gathers
Catholic Church Genocide – The Doctrine of Discovery and US Expansion
“No person shall be… deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law…”
This idea, which is a bedrock of American democracy, is from the Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which was completed in 1787. The same year the U.S. government enacted the Northwest Ordinance, which created the first organized territory out of the region that is today Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin.
Among the other regulations, the ordinance set forth a guiding principle for the treatment of Native Americans and their lands:
“The utmost good faith shall always be observed towards the Indians; their lands and property shall never be taken without their consent; and, in their property rights and liberty shall never be invaded or disrupted.” Just seven years later, in 1794, the U.S. Government sent a regiment led by General “Mad” Anthony Wayne to conquer a confederation of American Indian tribes attempting to keep their lands. At the battle of the Fallen Timbers, a band of 800 plus Native Americans were slaughtered and 5,000 acres of crops were destroyed. The tribes in the region were forced to sign a treaty that limited them to the northern region of what is today’s Ohio.
In 1802 President Thomas Jefferson signed the Georgia Compact, which stated that in exchange for land (what is today’s Alabama and Mississippi), the federal government would remove all American Indians within the territory of Georgia as soon as it could be done reasonably and peacefully. By 1830, the government passed the Indian Removal Act, which authorized the president to remove the remaining Eastern Indians to lands west of the Mississippi. Between 1838 and 1839, under President Andrew Jackson, 15,000 Cherokee Indian nations were forcefully taken from their land, herded into makeshift forts, and made to march, some in chains for thousands of miles to present day Oklahoma. Over 4,000 Cherokees died from hunger, disease and execution on what they called Nunna daul Tsuny or the Trail of Tears. By the late 1840’s, almost all Native Americans had been removed and moved to lands west of the Mississippi.
Although the Black Californian warriors continued fighting well into the late 1890’s.
Christian Empire
In 1095, at the beginning of the Crusades, Pope Urban II issued an edict-the Papal Bull Terra Nullius (meaning empty land). It gave the kings and princes of Europe the right to “discover” or claim land in non-Christian areas. The policy was extended in 1492 when Pope Nicholas V issued the bull Romanus Pontifex, declaring war against all non-Christians throughout the world and authorizing the conquest of their nations and territories. These edicts treated non-Christians as uncivilized and subhuman, and therefore without rights to any land or nation. Christians claimed a God given right to take control of all lands and used the idea to justify war, colonization and even slavery.
By the time Christopher Columbus set sail in 1492, this Doctrine of Discovery was a well-established idea in the Christian world. When he reached the Americas, Columbus performed ceremonies to “take possession” of all lands “discovered,” meaning all territory not occupied by Christians. Upon his return to Europe in 1493, Pope Alexander VI issued the bull Inter Cetera, granting Spain the right to conquer the lands that Columbus had already “discovered” and all lands that he might come upon in the future. The decree also expressed the Pope’s wish to convert the natives of these lands to Catholicism in order to strengthen the “Christian Empire.”
In 1573 Pope Paul II issued the papal bull Sublimis Deus, which denounced the idea that Native Americans “should be treated like irrational animals and used exclusively for our profit and service,” and Pope Urban VIII (1623-1644) formally excommunicated anyone still holding Indian slaves. By this time however, the Doctrine of Discovery was deeply rooted and led nonetheless to the conquering of non-Christian lands and people in every corner of the earth. Although the United States was founded on freedom from such tyranny, the idea of white people and Christians having certain divine rights was nevertheless ingrained in this young nation’s policies. The slave trade and centuries of violence against Black people depended upon the idea that non-Whites were less human. The theft of indigenous people’s lands require the same justification.
In 1823, the Doctrine of Discovery was written into US law as a way to deny rights to Native Americans.
In 1845, a democratic leader and prominent editor named John L O’Sullivan gave the Doctrine of Discovery a uniquely American flavor when he coined the term, Manifest Destiny to defend United States expansion and claims of new territory:
…the right of our manifest destiny to over spread and to possess the whole continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty …is right such as that of the tree to the space of air and earth suitable for the full expansion of its principle and destiny of growth. The idea of Manifest Destiny was published in newspapers and debated by politicians. It furthered the scenes among U.S. citizens of an inevitable or natural right to expand the notion and to spread “freedom and democracy” (although only deemed capable of self government, which certainly did not include Blacks or other Native people.) Weather called the Doctrine of Discovery or Manifest Destiny the principles that stimulated US thirst for land that have been disastrous for natives, indigenous Blacks, and many others both in North America and abroad who lost life, liberty, and property as a result of United States expansion. The history of Christian law helps us understand how our leaders, many considered heroes and role models today, undertook monstrous acts in the name of liberty.
Olmec Egyptian Goddess Isis Cave Art
California Black’s Cave Art – Olmec Heads
Although hundreds of thousands of ancient rock art and cave drawing exists in Crystal Lake California — dating back 50,000 years or more (a protected military base) — all up and down the California coast in Mexico, Utah, New Mexico and Colorado, among many other sites, official authorities continue to have no idea who created them. Although many discoveries over the last decade has indisputable proof and evidence of a great civilization of Blacks living in America for thousands of years.
The famous Olmec Heads in Mexico, countless art, sculptures, figurines and archeological discoveries. The fact that the academic community and mainstream media continue to ignore this head in the sand approach to discovery is suspect. They refuse to acknowledge or disclose the true creators of the indigenous, the great Black civilization that founded America and accomplished these great feats.
One technological breakthrough I accomplished by using a Mac computer in an effort to study and find the royal color of purple color pallets, symbols, pics and other related cave-rock art with similarities in order to identify the origins of vast amounts of ancient art in so many places. So we back engineering some of the photo graphic cave art. While the assumption is they were scientifically advance, their technology could possibly be compatible to our tech in the 21st century. And indeed it was. They were not only tech savvy but also 3D, CGI, Computer Generated Illustration savvy. The cave art remarkably demonstrates animation and reappearing art. To my discovery, ancient images did appear showing lifestyle, religious ceremonies, the gods, worship, activities, work, family and the wealth and opulence of the ancient Blacks of America. You will surely be as amazed as I was to see what the cave and rock art revealed.
Although the amazing digital graph photos, DPI’s are low, the color graphics are clear enough to see the life and times of the ancients and one thing is for sure. They were not hunter – gathers.
The 10 Biggest Cultural Thefts in Black History
https://www.theroot.com/author/michaelharriot
Photo: iStock
Netflix’s new documentary, The Lion’s Share, chronicles the history of the song “The Lion Sleeps Tonight,” how it became a worldwide hit and—most importantly—how media companies including Disney, kept the song’s original creator, South African musician Solomon Linda, from receiving any of the profits.
While discussing the film, someone on The Root’s staff pondered if—considering the millions of dollars generated by this song over the span of eight decades— “The Lion Sleeps Tonight” was the most heinous incident of cultural theft in history. The question piqued our interest, which led to this ranking of what I consider to be the worst cultural thefts of all time.
This list was not voted on by a panel of wypipologists or vetted by the American Consortium of Caucasians Be Stealing. Instead of broad categories like the blues, jazz or Kardashian-ing (a verb that combines cultural appropriation and desperation for fame—also known as “Ariana Grandestanding”), we (meaning “I”) chose specific examples that met the following criteria:
While this is different from cultural appropriation, this list is indicative of how American culture has not only sucked the creative marrow out of the bones of black culture, it also shows how white America will manipulate laws, whitewash history and twist white supremacy into an underhanded narrative that makes the world believe that black people are the ones who steal because white people are too busy being great.
Thieving motherf ...
But I digress.
10. Pablo Picasso stole African art.
Screenshot: YouTube (NexitCourier)
African art experts have long acknowledged that, of all the European masters, Pablo Picasso’s life’s work straddled the line between influenced by and outright theft. Art historians and researchers called it “cultural appropriation,” (pdf) while Africans called it theft. Picasso said: “Good artists copy, great artists steal.”
In 2006, a Johannesburg gallery hosted the largest exhibition of Picasso’s work ever displayed in South Africa. To show his legacy, the gallery also included the work of the African artists who inspired Picasso. South African Department of Arts and Culture spokesman Sandile Memele said of the exhibit: “Today the truth is on display that Picasso would not have been the renowned creative genius he was if he did not steal and re-adapt the work of ‘anonymous (African) artists.’”
It is unquestionable that there was a period in Picasso’s career where the famed artist was simply painting African artifacts. Whether Picasso stole African art or was inspired by it is up for debate, so some might not consider his work to be cultural theft. What is not up for debate is one of Picasso’s most famous quotes: “L’art negre? Connais pas.”
The sentence roughly translates as: “African art? Never heard of it.”
9. Friends is Living Single with mayonnaise.
Everyone on the internet knows that the hit NBC sitcom Friends is an unmelanated version of Living Single. None of the show’s creators will openly admit it, even though Living Single was created a year earlier than NBC’s Caucasian version. But the internet knows.
Also, when Yvette Lee Bowser created Living Single for Warner Bros. in 1994, one of the suggested titles for the show was Friends. A year later, Friends (or as I call it “White People Don’t Knock”) debuted on NBC, but I’m sure it was a coincidence. Both shows aired on Thursday nights but Living Single ended after six seasons while Friends went on to become one of the most successful shows in TV history, maybe because the black sitcom never got the same promotion as the white version from the studio.
Both shows were produced by Warner Bros.
8. Led Zeppelin stole the “greatest guitar riff of all time.”
“I think when Willie Dixon turned on the radio in Chicago twenty years after he wrote his blues, he thought, ‘That’s my song [Whole Lotta Love].’ … When we ripped it off, I said to Jimmy, ‘Hey, that’s not our song.’ And he said, ‘Shut up and keep walking.’” — Robert Plant, “Led Zeppelin IV”
Led Zeppelin is one of the greatest cultural thief crews of all time, having been sued for stealing almost every hit they ever made. Most of their songs were cribbed from blues artists, but perhaps none as blatantly as “Whole Lotta Love.” In 2004, the song was ranked No. 75 on Rolling Stone magazine’s list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In 2014, listeners to BBC Radio voted “Whole Lotta Love” as containing the greatest guitar riff of all time.
They stole that shit.
Willie Dixon, who wrote “You Need Love” with Muddy Waters, sued Led Zeppelin and the group settled out of court. When asked about it, Robert Plant would later say:
“I just thought, ‘Well, what am I going to sing?’ That was it, a nick. Now happily paid for. At the time, there was a lot of conversation about what to do. It was decided that it was so far away in time and influence that … Well, you only get caught when you’re successful. That’s the game.”
Muddy Waters died two years earlier.
7. Charlie Case
While we said we wouldn’t do broad categories, this list could easily be composed of black entertainers whose vaudeville and nightclub acts were unabashedly stolen by white performers. But perhaps none of these cases are as important as the story of Charlie Case.
Charlie Case was a famous vaudeville comedian. He sang. He wrote songs. In the 1920s, white comedians who saw him simply took his jokes and his songs and started performing them for white audiences. W.C. Fields’ entire act was Charlie Cases’. The above clip is from the 1933 film, The Fatal Glass of Beer, an entire film based on a song written by Case.
But none of that shit matters.
Case was robbed of his intellectual property because—aside from his songs—he was one of the funniest people who ever lived. In fact, in the 1880s, Charlie Case commanded large audiences in nightclubs and theaters doing something that no entertainer had ever done, according to numerous showbiz historians, including Eddie Tafoya’s The Legacy of Wisecrack.
Case didn’t dance. He didn’t wear costumes or blackface. He didn’t even use props. He simply stood on stage and made people laugh. It is remarkable that he is not a household name because of one generally accepted historical fact that almost no one disputes:
Charlie Case was the first stand-up comedian.
6. Elvis Presley ain’t nothing but a Hound Dog.
One of the weirdest things about the list of black musicians whose songs were stolen without payment is that white artists rarely chose obscure songs. If a black artist had a reasonable hit, white artists would just take the song, record it and perform it as their own.
This information is important to know because Elvis Presley technically didn’t steal “Hound Dog” from blues legend Willie Mae “Big Mama” Thornton. When Thornton recorded the song in August 1952, the song immediately became a No. 1 hit. On Sept. 9, 1952, Thornton even filed for a copyright application for the song.
Then, everyone started stealing it.
But it was Elvis—who stole it from Freddie Bell and the Bellboys, who stole it from Little Esther, who stole it from Thornton—who made the song one of the most recognizable songs in rock ’n roll history. But despite her copyright claim, the song (which is one of the most litigated songs in history) is credited to the white men who paid for the recording session.
All told, Big Mama Thornton earned $500 for recording “Hound Dog.”
5. Every form of American dance
Every single form of American dance was created by African Americans. Of course, European dances like the Tango and Waltz were popular in the United States, but they are not American.
I know, I know, I said the list would be specific and not broad so I’ll narrow this down just to:
Swing dancing, the Lindy Hop, the Charleston, the jitterbug, the flea, the mover, the spin, the buzz, the jazz, the Cab Calloway, tap dancing, the moonwalk, the slide, the skirt, jukeing, flapping, shagging, jive, boogie woogie, the rock, the mashed potato, the twist, the James Brown, the robot, the squirt, the monkey, the funky chicken, the schoolboy, hand jive, disco, popping, locking, breakdancing, the worm, the windmill, the King Tut, the Vogue, the Bobby Brown, the Michael Jackson, the Tootsie Roll, the Butterfly, the Electric Slide, the Wobble, the Cupid Shuffle, jukking, line dancing, square dancing, crumping, twerking and shaking that ass like a saltshaker.
4. Chuck Berry’s entire career
Chuck Berry may be the most stolen-from artist in music history. Here is a partial list of songs stolen from the blues icon:
All of them.
3. Jack Daniels’ whiskey
For a century and a half, Jack Daniels epitomized American liquors with its origin story about the Tennessee whiskey distiller who cemented his legacy by creating an iconic brand with nothing but the sweat of his brow and hard work and ... hold on. Please excuse me while I guffaw.
You know white people don’t do that.
Nah, Jack Daniels learned how to make whiskey from Nearest Green, a slave who was the family’s master distiller and the first African-American master in the United States. So it was nice that the Daniels family finally came clean a scant 150 years after it took Green’s recipe and erased him from history. But I bet everything will be repaired now that Jack Daniels’ heirs are worth $20 billion, making the clan one of the richest families in America.
I’m sure they are in favor of reparations.
2. How Onesimus saved America
Screenshot: HowStuff Works
In 1716, Onesimus, an enslaved African purchased by notable Puritan minister Cotton Mather, told his master an incredible story. Mather already thought Onesimus was “wicked” and “thievish” because of the slave’s intelligence. Maybe it was because the slave still practiced African traditions. Maybe it was the smallpox epidemic that was killing thousands. At any rate, Cotton Mather didn’t trust Onesimus, especially when the slave told Mather something that was impossible to believe:
He knew how to cure smallpox.
Onesimus showed him a scar on his arm and said he had undergone surgery in Africa that made him immune to smallpox. He told Mather to cut himself and rub the puss from a smallpox sore into the cut, and that would make him immune. Mather finally believed Onesimus and started telling doctors everywhere, even sending letters abroad, but American medical professionals thought Mather was out of his mind. A few people in China and the Ottoman Empire had heard of this, but it wasn’t reliable white people medicine.
Then in 1721, smallpox killed 14 percent of Boston’s population. Mather convinced a doctor friend to try Onesimus’ method, inoculating his slaves, his family and friends. That year, one out of every seven people in Boston died from smallpox.
Of the 242 people inoculated by Mather’s friend, only six died—or one in 40.
The news spread around the world and for the first time, American doctors had evidence-based tests to show that live vaccines can provide immunity. Eventually, the smallpox vaccine became mandatory in Massachusetts. In 1980, the World Health Organization declared that smallpox to be the first disease ever wiped out by modern medicine.
Edward Jenner, who developed a smallpox vaccine 80 years after Onesimus, is called the “Father of Immunology” and is widely credited with the discovery of the smallpox vaccine. Very few people know Onesimus’ name.
Having saved Mather’s family, Onesimus tried to purchase his freedom from Mather shortly after the smallpox epidemic passed. Onesimus even offered to buy another enslaved person to replace him.
Mather refused.
1. America
Photo: Creative Commons
Stop me if you’ve heard this one.
Stolen Africans were taken to a country stolen from Native Americans and had their labor stolen from them for 400 years, making the country the wealthiest place on earth. Eventually, a war between keep-the-country-together thieves and pro-slavery thieves set the stolen people free ...
But not really.
Instead of stealing labor, the thief country stole our dignity, our history, culture, humanity and even our lives. And for all this, we were allowed to live in cages on the worst parts of the stolen place. Soon, the dignity thieves lost to the dignified thieves and instead of Jim Crow, the thieves created crack cocaine, shipped it into black neighborhoods, made it cheaper than regular cocaine and created a War on Drugs to steal freedom, time and lives from the crack-adjacent communities that didn’t have guns, planes or boats to import cocaine.
Over this time, they devised plans to steal votes, music, art, culture, money, neighborhoods, ideas and blood. There is always blood.
Always.
And they will tell you this is normal. They will call it “nation-building.” Or “manifest destiny.” Or “inspiration.” Or “influence.” Or ...
“The American Way.”
https://www.theroot.com/author/michaelharriot
Photo: iStock
Netflix’s new documentary, The Lion’s Share, chronicles the history of the song “The Lion Sleeps Tonight,” how it became a worldwide hit and—most importantly—how media companies including Disney, kept the song’s original creator, South African musician Solomon Linda, from receiving any of the profits.
While discussing the film, someone on The Root’s staff pondered if—considering the millions of dollars generated by this song over the span of eight decades— “The Lion Sleeps Tonight” was the most heinous incident of cultural theft in history. The question piqued our interest, which led to this ranking of what I consider to be the worst cultural thefts of all time.
This list was not voted on by a panel of wypipologists or vetted by the American Consortium of Caucasians Be Stealing. Instead of broad categories like the blues, jazz or Kardashian-ing (a verb that combines cultural appropriation and desperation for fame—also known as “Ariana Grandestanding”), we (meaning “I”) chose specific examples that met the following criteria:
- Something was created by a black person or black people.
- A white person or white people took it without permission.
- The white person benefitted or profited.
- The people who created the thing never shared in the recognition, accolades or financial benefit.
While this is different from cultural appropriation, this list is indicative of how American culture has not only sucked the creative marrow out of the bones of black culture, it also shows how white America will manipulate laws, whitewash history and twist white supremacy into an underhanded narrative that makes the world believe that black people are the ones who steal because white people are too busy being great.
Thieving motherf ...
But I digress.
10. Pablo Picasso stole African art.
Screenshot: YouTube (NexitCourier)
African art experts have long acknowledged that, of all the European masters, Pablo Picasso’s life’s work straddled the line between influenced by and outright theft. Art historians and researchers called it “cultural appropriation,” (pdf) while Africans called it theft. Picasso said: “Good artists copy, great artists steal.”
In 2006, a Johannesburg gallery hosted the largest exhibition of Picasso’s work ever displayed in South Africa. To show his legacy, the gallery also included the work of the African artists who inspired Picasso. South African Department of Arts and Culture spokesman Sandile Memele said of the exhibit: “Today the truth is on display that Picasso would not have been the renowned creative genius he was if he did not steal and re-adapt the work of ‘anonymous (African) artists.’”
It is unquestionable that there was a period in Picasso’s career where the famed artist was simply painting African artifacts. Whether Picasso stole African art or was inspired by it is up for debate, so some might not consider his work to be cultural theft. What is not up for debate is one of Picasso’s most famous quotes: “L’art negre? Connais pas.”
The sentence roughly translates as: “African art? Never heard of it.”
9. Friends is Living Single with mayonnaise.
Everyone on the internet knows that the hit NBC sitcom Friends is an unmelanated version of Living Single. None of the show’s creators will openly admit it, even though Living Single was created a year earlier than NBC’s Caucasian version. But the internet knows.
Also, when Yvette Lee Bowser created Living Single for Warner Bros. in 1994, one of the suggested titles for the show was Friends. A year later, Friends (or as I call it “White People Don’t Knock”) debuted on NBC, but I’m sure it was a coincidence. Both shows aired on Thursday nights but Living Single ended after six seasons while Friends went on to become one of the most successful shows in TV history, maybe because the black sitcom never got the same promotion as the white version from the studio.
Both shows were produced by Warner Bros.
8. Led Zeppelin stole the “greatest guitar riff of all time.”
“I think when Willie Dixon turned on the radio in Chicago twenty years after he wrote his blues, he thought, ‘That’s my song [Whole Lotta Love].’ … When we ripped it off, I said to Jimmy, ‘Hey, that’s not our song.’ And he said, ‘Shut up and keep walking.’” — Robert Plant, “Led Zeppelin IV”
Led Zeppelin is one of the greatest cultural thief crews of all time, having been sued for stealing almost every hit they ever made. Most of their songs were cribbed from blues artists, but perhaps none as blatantly as “Whole Lotta Love.” In 2004, the song was ranked No. 75 on Rolling Stone magazine’s list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In 2014, listeners to BBC Radio voted “Whole Lotta Love” as containing the greatest guitar riff of all time.
They stole that shit.
Willie Dixon, who wrote “You Need Love” with Muddy Waters, sued Led Zeppelin and the group settled out of court. When asked about it, Robert Plant would later say:
“I just thought, ‘Well, what am I going to sing?’ That was it, a nick. Now happily paid for. At the time, there was a lot of conversation about what to do. It was decided that it was so far away in time and influence that … Well, you only get caught when you’re successful. That’s the game.”
Muddy Waters died two years earlier.
7. Charlie Case
While we said we wouldn’t do broad categories, this list could easily be composed of black entertainers whose vaudeville and nightclub acts were unabashedly stolen by white performers. But perhaps none of these cases are as important as the story of Charlie Case.
Charlie Case was a famous vaudeville comedian. He sang. He wrote songs. In the 1920s, white comedians who saw him simply took his jokes and his songs and started performing them for white audiences. W.C. Fields’ entire act was Charlie Cases’. The above clip is from the 1933 film, The Fatal Glass of Beer, an entire film based on a song written by Case.
But none of that shit matters.
Case was robbed of his intellectual property because—aside from his songs—he was one of the funniest people who ever lived. In fact, in the 1880s, Charlie Case commanded large audiences in nightclubs and theaters doing something that no entertainer had ever done, according to numerous showbiz historians, including Eddie Tafoya’s The Legacy of Wisecrack.
Case didn’t dance. He didn’t wear costumes or blackface. He didn’t even use props. He simply stood on stage and made people laugh. It is remarkable that he is not a household name because of one generally accepted historical fact that almost no one disputes:
Charlie Case was the first stand-up comedian.
6. Elvis Presley ain’t nothing but a Hound Dog.
One of the weirdest things about the list of black musicians whose songs were stolen without payment is that white artists rarely chose obscure songs. If a black artist had a reasonable hit, white artists would just take the song, record it and perform it as their own.
This information is important to know because Elvis Presley technically didn’t steal “Hound Dog” from blues legend Willie Mae “Big Mama” Thornton. When Thornton recorded the song in August 1952, the song immediately became a No. 1 hit. On Sept. 9, 1952, Thornton even filed for a copyright application for the song.
Then, everyone started stealing it.
But it was Elvis—who stole it from Freddie Bell and the Bellboys, who stole it from Little Esther, who stole it from Thornton—who made the song one of the most recognizable songs in rock ’n roll history. But despite her copyright claim, the song (which is one of the most litigated songs in history) is credited to the white men who paid for the recording session.
All told, Big Mama Thornton earned $500 for recording “Hound Dog.”
5. Every form of American dance
Every single form of American dance was created by African Americans. Of course, European dances like the Tango and Waltz were popular in the United States, but they are not American.
I know, I know, I said the list would be specific and not broad so I’ll narrow this down just to:
Swing dancing, the Lindy Hop, the Charleston, the jitterbug, the flea, the mover, the spin, the buzz, the jazz, the Cab Calloway, tap dancing, the moonwalk, the slide, the skirt, jukeing, flapping, shagging, jive, boogie woogie, the rock, the mashed potato, the twist, the James Brown, the robot, the squirt, the monkey, the funky chicken, the schoolboy, hand jive, disco, popping, locking, breakdancing, the worm, the windmill, the King Tut, the Vogue, the Bobby Brown, the Michael Jackson, the Tootsie Roll, the Butterfly, the Electric Slide, the Wobble, the Cupid Shuffle, jukking, line dancing, square dancing, crumping, twerking and shaking that ass like a saltshaker.
4. Chuck Berry’s entire career
Chuck Berry may be the most stolen-from artist in music history. Here is a partial list of songs stolen from the blues icon:
- The Beatles’ “Come Together”
- The Beach Boys “Surfin’ USA”
- Elvis Presley’s “Jailhouse Rock”
- The Rolling Stones’ full catalog
- The Beatles’ “I Saw Her Standing There”
All of them.
3. Jack Daniels’ whiskey
For a century and a half, Jack Daniels epitomized American liquors with its origin story about the Tennessee whiskey distiller who cemented his legacy by creating an iconic brand with nothing but the sweat of his brow and hard work and ... hold on. Please excuse me while I guffaw.
You know white people don’t do that.
Nah, Jack Daniels learned how to make whiskey from Nearest Green, a slave who was the family’s master distiller and the first African-American master in the United States. So it was nice that the Daniels family finally came clean a scant 150 years after it took Green’s recipe and erased him from history. But I bet everything will be repaired now that Jack Daniels’ heirs are worth $20 billion, making the clan one of the richest families in America.
I’m sure they are in favor of reparations.
2. How Onesimus saved America
Screenshot: HowStuff Works
In 1716, Onesimus, an enslaved African purchased by notable Puritan minister Cotton Mather, told his master an incredible story. Mather already thought Onesimus was “wicked” and “thievish” because of the slave’s intelligence. Maybe it was because the slave still practiced African traditions. Maybe it was the smallpox epidemic that was killing thousands. At any rate, Cotton Mather didn’t trust Onesimus, especially when the slave told Mather something that was impossible to believe:
He knew how to cure smallpox.
Onesimus showed him a scar on his arm and said he had undergone surgery in Africa that made him immune to smallpox. He told Mather to cut himself and rub the puss from a smallpox sore into the cut, and that would make him immune. Mather finally believed Onesimus and started telling doctors everywhere, even sending letters abroad, but American medical professionals thought Mather was out of his mind. A few people in China and the Ottoman Empire had heard of this, but it wasn’t reliable white people medicine.
Then in 1721, smallpox killed 14 percent of Boston’s population. Mather convinced a doctor friend to try Onesimus’ method, inoculating his slaves, his family and friends. That year, one out of every seven people in Boston died from smallpox.
Of the 242 people inoculated by Mather’s friend, only six died—or one in 40.
The news spread around the world and for the first time, American doctors had evidence-based tests to show that live vaccines can provide immunity. Eventually, the smallpox vaccine became mandatory in Massachusetts. In 1980, the World Health Organization declared that smallpox to be the first disease ever wiped out by modern medicine.
Edward Jenner, who developed a smallpox vaccine 80 years after Onesimus, is called the “Father of Immunology” and is widely credited with the discovery of the smallpox vaccine. Very few people know Onesimus’ name.
Having saved Mather’s family, Onesimus tried to purchase his freedom from Mather shortly after the smallpox epidemic passed. Onesimus even offered to buy another enslaved person to replace him.
Mather refused.
1. America
Photo: Creative Commons
Stop me if you’ve heard this one.
Stolen Africans were taken to a country stolen from Native Americans and had their labor stolen from them for 400 years, making the country the wealthiest place on earth. Eventually, a war between keep-the-country-together thieves and pro-slavery thieves set the stolen people free ...
But not really.
Instead of stealing labor, the thief country stole our dignity, our history, culture, humanity and even our lives. And for all this, we were allowed to live in cages on the worst parts of the stolen place. Soon, the dignity thieves lost to the dignified thieves and instead of Jim Crow, the thieves created crack cocaine, shipped it into black neighborhoods, made it cheaper than regular cocaine and created a War on Drugs to steal freedom, time and lives from the crack-adjacent communities that didn’t have guns, planes or boats to import cocaine.
Over this time, they devised plans to steal votes, music, art, culture, money, neighborhoods, ideas and blood. There is always blood.
Always.
And they will tell you this is normal. They will call it “nation-building.” Or “manifest destiny.” Or “inspiration.” Or “influence.” Or ...
“The American Way.”
The Untold Story of the Man Who Called Himself the "Black Edison"
Maybe you don't know Garrett Morgan's name, but he dreamed up inventions that were the precursors to hair straighteners, gas masks, and traffic lights.
It's 3 AM on July 25, 1916, and Garrett Morgan's phone rings. The voice on the other end tells him there's been a natural gas explosion in a waterworks tunnel about four miles off Cleveland's shoreline and 120 feet below Lake Erie's surface. Many men are trapped and likely dead from smoke inhalation, including several initial rescue crews. Morgan may be the survivors' only hope. The reason: a little invention called the Morgan National Safety Hood.
Morgan arrives at the water crib (an offshore structure that collects lake water for onshore needs) a peculiar sight, wearing the beige safety hood with breathing tubes snaking out of it but still donning his pajama bottoms. He descends into the smoky depths accompanied only by his brother Frank and a few other brave souls. Many onlookers (including Cleveland Mayor Harry L. Davis) are skeptical of Morgan's recently debuted hood, fearful the invention that claims to protect the wearer from smoke while pumping in fresh air will do little to save them from the toxic air below.
Tense moments ticks by. Finally, a figure emerges from the dark hole holding a barely conscious man. Morgan has found a survivor.
After hours of search and rescue eight more men are saved, but 22 have perished in what would became known as the "Lake Erie Crib Disaster." At the scene, the mayor hails Morgan as a hero and his safety hood for saving lives. Yet many newspaper accounts in the following days fail to mention Morgan's name. Months later, when the Carnegie Hero Fund Commission hands out awards for the day's heroics, it is not him who receives it.*
One big factor hanging over the whole affair: Morgan is African-American.
A century later, Garrett Morgan is considered one of America's greatest, if least-known, inventors. Besides the safety hood, he's also credited with the invention of the three-position traffic signal and a hair straightening product. Like other inventors of the industrial age—people like Bell, Ford, and the Wright brothers—Morgan's story is one of hard work, ingenuity, brilliance, and fearlessness. However, it was his business acumen that earned comparison to another contemporary. "My grandfather was an inventor, but he considered himself a businessman first. An entrepreneur," Morgan's granddaughter Sandra Morgan tells Popular Mechanics, "He referred to himself as the Black Edison."
Born in rural Kentucky at the tail end of Reconstruction in 1877, Garrett Augustus Morgan was part of a large family, the son of a preacher's daughter and an ex-slave. He attended a segregated school through the sixth grade, but in 1891 he left home for the big city of Cincinnati. He spent four years as a wealthy white landowner's handyman and then moved to Cleveland, where he remained for the rest of his life.
Cleveland was a garment industry hub at the turn of the 20th century, ranking second behind New York in size. One in seven Cleveland residents worked in the business. The city rapidly industrialized and Cleveland more than doubled its population in just two decades from 1890 to 1910. When he arrived, Morgan got a job sweeping floors at the Roots and McBride Company factory for five dollars a week. While there, he taught himself how to fix the oft-broken sewing machines. Soon he became the company's only black machine adjuster. At Roots and McBride he first invented a belt fastener that improved the sewing machine's efficiency, which he may have sold for $150 (about $4,300 today). According to Ed Pershey of the Western Reserve Historical Society (where Morgan's archives and papers are located), it's likely Morgan made other mechanical improvements to sewing machines that are now lost to history.
In 1907, Morgan was hired away by a competitor who made him that company's first black machinist. There he met a Bohemian Czech immigrant seamstress named Mary Hasek. She was white and he was black. "When their relationship was discovered, they were given a choice... either knock it off or leave," Sandra Morgan says, "They decided to leave." The two married and opened a children's clothing shop. Garrett built and maintained the machines while Mary sewed the garments. Later, he opened the Morgan Skirt Factory. The business ventures allowed the couple to buy a house on Harlem Avenue. (A historical marker there is currently being refurbished.) But like all entrepreneurial inventors, Morgan needed to keep creating.
The Other Mr. Morgan
As is the case with most legends, the exact details are a bit slippery. The story goes that one morning Morgan was experimenting with lubricating oils to keep fast-moving hot steel needles in sewing machines from scorching the fabric. At lunchtime he wiped his oily hands on a lambskin cloth (or horsehair, depending upon who's telling the story). Arriving back at his workshop, Morgan found the hair on the cloth where he wiped his hands were immaculately straight. It seemed whatever oils he was using had relaxed or broken down the fibers of the hair. Curious, he borrowed his neighbor's Airedale terrier for a test. The product worked so well that the neighbor thought the canine wasn't his and refused to take it back.
After trying it on himself, Morgan was ready to take "G.A. Morgan's Hair Refiner" on the road. The straightener became Morgan's money maker and he sold it around the country."This stuff was more popular among men than women," says Sandra Morgan. "They all wanted to have that Rudolph Valentino look."
Not long afterward, inspiration struck again. Morgan was watching firefighters struggle with smoke inhalation when he got the idea for the safety hood. Filed in September 1912, the patent for his "Breathing Device" shows a picture of a hood with a long tube running out of it to the floor. The idea was to provide the firefighter with a means "to supply himself at will with fresh air from near the floor... at the same time forcibly remove smoke or injurious gases from the air tube," the patent said. Later versions would come with a bag worn on the back that supplied up to 20 minutes of air. Today this invention is often called a precursor to the modern gas mask, but it's actually closer to what a modern-day scuba diver wears.
Despite the ingenuity, Morgan had troubling selling the potentially life-saving equipment—it seems white fire chiefs didn't want to buy a product made by a black inventor. This is where Morgan's fearlessness comes into play. Looking for a mentor, the Cleveland inventor sought out the incredibly wealthy and famous financier J.P. Morgan. Amazingly, the two struck up a relationship.
When asked for advice on selling the hood, J.P. Morgan said to remove the "Garrett A." from the name and call it just the "Morgan Safety Hood." In the other words, he wanted the inventor to remove himself from his own product. This meant hiring white actors to do the selling at firefighter conventions. At one point, Garrett Morgan himself even dressed up like an Indian chief during one creative demonstration.
Cynical or no, the plan worked. Garrett Morgan sold the hood to fire departments throughout the country and won a contract with the U.S. Navy. By 1917, the year after the Lake Erie Crib Disaster, the hood was standard equipment for the U.S. Army during World War I. "It turned the tide... it made business sense. (My grandfather) was so grateful," says Sandra Morgan, "We used to always make jokes, 'My name is Morgan, but it ain't J.P.'"
When his first son was born, Morgan named him after his mentor, John Pierpoint. As a show of gratitude, the American icon sent the inventor's son a savings bond.
Crosstown Traffic
American city streets of the late 1910s and early 20s were a chaotic mess of carriages, pedestrians, wagons, horses and, thanks to Henry Ford, cars. Safety measures were nearly non-existent, accidents common. One day, Morgan was out with his sons when he watched a terrible collision between a car and a horse-drawn carriage in which a little girl was thrown from the carriage. "My dad talked about (this accident) until the day he died," Sandra Morgan says, "It was a traumatic thing to see as a little kid."
Garrett Morgan knew there had to be a better way. On February 27, 1922, he filed the patent for his "traffic signal." Now, traffic lights existed at the time. In fact, the very first electric traffic light was installed in 1914 in Cleveland, a mere 3 miles from Morgan's house. The Morgan T-shaped signal was different, though. Rather than the typical two signals, stop and go, it had three signals, including a "caution" light. As described in the patent, the hand-operated signal stops traffic "in all directions before the signal to proceed in any one direction is given," allowing vehicles that are already in the intersection time to get out and "thus avoiding accidents which frequently occur by reason of the over-anxiety of the waiting drivers." In other words, Morgan invented the yellow light.
What happened next isn't entirely clear. Concerned that his race would colorblind potential buyers, as happened with his safety hood, evidence suggests that Morgan sold the patent to the General Electric Company for $40,000 (Pershey says records of the sale may no longer exist). What is clear is that General Electric took his patent and installed three-armed signals in cities across the country, which undoubtedly prevented millions of accidents. Once again, a Morgan invention was saving lives.
Morgan went on to become a pillar in Cleveland's black community. He co-founded an African-American newspaper, took on a leadership role in the city's chapter of the NAACP, and ran for city council. But he was always an inventor and entrepreneur first. "His inventiveness and innovation was driven by solving business problems," says Sandra Morgan, "At a time of extreme racial bigotry, he refused to let that get in his way."
Today, several of Morgan's innovations are on display across the country. The original wooden prototype of his traffic signal is at Smithsonian's American History Museum. A metal model is at Cleveland's Western Reserve Historical Society. Later this month, a Morgan Safety Hood will be on display at the opening of Smithsonian's new National Museum of African American History & Culture. Finally, the man who called himself the "Black Edison" is getting his due.
Maybe you don't know Garrett Morgan's name, but he dreamed up inventions that were the precursors to hair straighteners, gas masks, and traffic lights.
It's 3 AM on July 25, 1916, and Garrett Morgan's phone rings. The voice on the other end tells him there's been a natural gas explosion in a waterworks tunnel about four miles off Cleveland's shoreline and 120 feet below Lake Erie's surface. Many men are trapped and likely dead from smoke inhalation, including several initial rescue crews. Morgan may be the survivors' only hope. The reason: a little invention called the Morgan National Safety Hood.
Morgan arrives at the water crib (an offshore structure that collects lake water for onshore needs) a peculiar sight, wearing the beige safety hood with breathing tubes snaking out of it but still donning his pajama bottoms. He descends into the smoky depths accompanied only by his brother Frank and a few other brave souls. Many onlookers (including Cleveland Mayor Harry L. Davis) are skeptical of Morgan's recently debuted hood, fearful the invention that claims to protect the wearer from smoke while pumping in fresh air will do little to save them from the toxic air below.
Tense moments ticks by. Finally, a figure emerges from the dark hole holding a barely conscious man. Morgan has found a survivor.
After hours of search and rescue eight more men are saved, but 22 have perished in what would became known as the "Lake Erie Crib Disaster." At the scene, the mayor hails Morgan as a hero and his safety hood for saving lives. Yet many newspaper accounts in the following days fail to mention Morgan's name. Months later, when the Carnegie Hero Fund Commission hands out awards for the day's heroics, it is not him who receives it.*
One big factor hanging over the whole affair: Morgan is African-American.
A century later, Garrett Morgan is considered one of America's greatest, if least-known, inventors. Besides the safety hood, he's also credited with the invention of the three-position traffic signal and a hair straightening product. Like other inventors of the industrial age—people like Bell, Ford, and the Wright brothers—Morgan's story is one of hard work, ingenuity, brilliance, and fearlessness. However, it was his business acumen that earned comparison to another contemporary. "My grandfather was an inventor, but he considered himself a businessman first. An entrepreneur," Morgan's granddaughter Sandra Morgan tells Popular Mechanics, "He referred to himself as the Black Edison."
Born in rural Kentucky at the tail end of Reconstruction in 1877, Garrett Augustus Morgan was part of a large family, the son of a preacher's daughter and an ex-slave. He attended a segregated school through the sixth grade, but in 1891 he left home for the big city of Cincinnati. He spent four years as a wealthy white landowner's handyman and then moved to Cleveland, where he remained for the rest of his life.
Cleveland was a garment industry hub at the turn of the 20th century, ranking second behind New York in size. One in seven Cleveland residents worked in the business. The city rapidly industrialized and Cleveland more than doubled its population in just two decades from 1890 to 1910. When he arrived, Morgan got a job sweeping floors at the Roots and McBride Company factory for five dollars a week. While there, he taught himself how to fix the oft-broken sewing machines. Soon he became the company's only black machine adjuster. At Roots and McBride he first invented a belt fastener that improved the sewing machine's efficiency, which he may have sold for $150 (about $4,300 today). According to Ed Pershey of the Western Reserve Historical Society (where Morgan's archives and papers are located), it's likely Morgan made other mechanical improvements to sewing machines that are now lost to history.
In 1907, Morgan was hired away by a competitor who made him that company's first black machinist. There he met a Bohemian Czech immigrant seamstress named Mary Hasek. She was white and he was black. "When their relationship was discovered, they were given a choice... either knock it off or leave," Sandra Morgan says, "They decided to leave." The two married and opened a children's clothing shop. Garrett built and maintained the machines while Mary sewed the garments. Later, he opened the Morgan Skirt Factory. The business ventures allowed the couple to buy a house on Harlem Avenue. (A historical marker there is currently being refurbished.) But like all entrepreneurial inventors, Morgan needed to keep creating.
The Other Mr. Morgan
As is the case with most legends, the exact details are a bit slippery. The story goes that one morning Morgan was experimenting with lubricating oils to keep fast-moving hot steel needles in sewing machines from scorching the fabric. At lunchtime he wiped his oily hands on a lambskin cloth (or horsehair, depending upon who's telling the story). Arriving back at his workshop, Morgan found the hair on the cloth where he wiped his hands were immaculately straight. It seemed whatever oils he was using had relaxed or broken down the fibers of the hair. Curious, he borrowed his neighbor's Airedale terrier for a test. The product worked so well that the neighbor thought the canine wasn't his and refused to take it back.
After trying it on himself, Morgan was ready to take "G.A. Morgan's Hair Refiner" on the road. The straightener became Morgan's money maker and he sold it around the country."This stuff was more popular among men than women," says Sandra Morgan. "They all wanted to have that Rudolph Valentino look."
Not long afterward, inspiration struck again. Morgan was watching firefighters struggle with smoke inhalation when he got the idea for the safety hood. Filed in September 1912, the patent for his "Breathing Device" shows a picture of a hood with a long tube running out of it to the floor. The idea was to provide the firefighter with a means "to supply himself at will with fresh air from near the floor... at the same time forcibly remove smoke or injurious gases from the air tube," the patent said. Later versions would come with a bag worn on the back that supplied up to 20 minutes of air. Today this invention is often called a precursor to the modern gas mask, but it's actually closer to what a modern-day scuba diver wears.
Despite the ingenuity, Morgan had troubling selling the potentially life-saving equipment—it seems white fire chiefs didn't want to buy a product made by a black inventor. This is where Morgan's fearlessness comes into play. Looking for a mentor, the Cleveland inventor sought out the incredibly wealthy and famous financier J.P. Morgan. Amazingly, the two struck up a relationship.
When asked for advice on selling the hood, J.P. Morgan said to remove the "Garrett A." from the name and call it just the "Morgan Safety Hood." In the other words, he wanted the inventor to remove himself from his own product. This meant hiring white actors to do the selling at firefighter conventions. At one point, Garrett Morgan himself even dressed up like an Indian chief during one creative demonstration.
Cynical or no, the plan worked. Garrett Morgan sold the hood to fire departments throughout the country and won a contract with the U.S. Navy. By 1917, the year after the Lake Erie Crib Disaster, the hood was standard equipment for the U.S. Army during World War I. "It turned the tide... it made business sense. (My grandfather) was so grateful," says Sandra Morgan, "We used to always make jokes, 'My name is Morgan, but it ain't J.P.'"
When his first son was born, Morgan named him after his mentor, John Pierpoint. As a show of gratitude, the American icon sent the inventor's son a savings bond.
Crosstown Traffic
American city streets of the late 1910s and early 20s were a chaotic mess of carriages, pedestrians, wagons, horses and, thanks to Henry Ford, cars. Safety measures were nearly non-existent, accidents common. One day, Morgan was out with his sons when he watched a terrible collision between a car and a horse-drawn carriage in which a little girl was thrown from the carriage. "My dad talked about (this accident) until the day he died," Sandra Morgan says, "It was a traumatic thing to see as a little kid."
Garrett Morgan knew there had to be a better way. On February 27, 1922, he filed the patent for his "traffic signal." Now, traffic lights existed at the time. In fact, the very first electric traffic light was installed in 1914 in Cleveland, a mere 3 miles from Morgan's house. The Morgan T-shaped signal was different, though. Rather than the typical two signals, stop and go, it had three signals, including a "caution" light. As described in the patent, the hand-operated signal stops traffic "in all directions before the signal to proceed in any one direction is given," allowing vehicles that are already in the intersection time to get out and "thus avoiding accidents which frequently occur by reason of the over-anxiety of the waiting drivers." In other words, Morgan invented the yellow light.
What happened next isn't entirely clear. Concerned that his race would colorblind potential buyers, as happened with his safety hood, evidence suggests that Morgan sold the patent to the General Electric Company for $40,000 (Pershey says records of the sale may no longer exist). What is clear is that General Electric took his patent and installed three-armed signals in cities across the country, which undoubtedly prevented millions of accidents. Once again, a Morgan invention was saving lives.
Morgan went on to become a pillar in Cleveland's black community. He co-founded an African-American newspaper, took on a leadership role in the city's chapter of the NAACP, and ran for city council. But he was always an inventor and entrepreneur first. "His inventiveness and innovation was driven by solving business problems," says Sandra Morgan, "At a time of extreme racial bigotry, he refused to let that get in his way."
Today, several of Morgan's innovations are on display across the country. The original wooden prototype of his traffic signal is at Smithsonian's American History Museum. A metal model is at Cleveland's Western Reserve Historical Society. Later this month, a Morgan Safety Hood will be on display at the opening of Smithsonian's new National Museum of African American History & Culture. Finally, the man who called himself the "Black Edison" is getting his due.
Something to think about!!!
Transatlantic Slave trade was a Hoax - 'African' Americans Are the Original Americans!
The so-called 'Indians' crossed the Bering strait in ~3000 BC. Negroid types have been in the Americas for at least 50k years. When whites arrived in 'America' they found it teeming with life, civilizations that hadn't been seen before by them. They also found plenty of valuable resources and fertile land. So what did they do? Same thing they did in Africa. They devised a way to steal it. First they genocided the natives.
Then they laid down their boats with gold. Then they enslaved those who survived. Do you really think they brought 20 million people from Africa to the Americas? That's completely stupid. Where are all the boats they would've had to use? How could they clean up after people who were packed like sardines? Shit, piss, vomit, for 1-3 months?!? In the 1600s to 1800s? Wooden boats relying on wind power?? Do you know how stormy the Atlantic is?? Those slaves would be turned into puree just from hitting their heads on the boards above them. Its impossible and impractical.
The truth is the 'slaves' were already here. They already had societies and 'countries' and lifestyles. They were black, 'Siberian' and a whole mix. Africans had sailed from Africa to Brazil centuries before Columbus did.
See, the reason why you believe this is the same reason that TPTB get away with all they do: you are all RETARDED. Seriously. White people live retarded lives. They think they're smarter then everyone, and yet they get all their information from people who don't have their best interests at heart. If you think I'm just an 'afro-centrist' spouting nonsense, here, let me prove it to you. White people for at least a decade, and probably still to this day defend the Iraq and Afghan wars.
Despite the fact that thousands of their own were killed, tens of thousands were wounded and left shells of men, and nothing improved for them in their daily life. If you were to observe someone who defended his wife's rapist, you would correctly call him AN IDIOT. White people defend their 'masters' who routinely abuse them and the native peoples of the rest of the world. They don't care about destroying forests, ruining lives, forced poverty, sexual abuse of women due to these changes which unbalance the natural scale of societies, etc.
If you see someone running through a store with reckless abandon destroying everything with no sense of value, you would call them wanton retards. And yet you cannot see that for 500 years YOU HAVE BEEN the wanton retards. You are blind because you are not as smart as you think you are, far from it. You can't see the hypocrisy of whining about 'refugees' and illegal immigration. BITCH YOUR WHOLE FAMILY WERE ILLEGAL IMMIGRANTS!!! YOUR ANCESTORS RAPED AND MURDERED THE NATIVE PEOPLE AND STOLE THEIR LAND! How can you even think to complain about 'illegal immigration'? You are like children, unable to see the consequences of your actions. You only care about yourselves, and barely that. You are truly a race of demons with no heart or spirituality.
Transatlantic Slave trade was a Hoax - 'African' Americans Are the Original Americans!
The so-called 'Indians' crossed the Bering strait in ~3000 BC. Negroid types have been in the Americas for at least 50k years. When whites arrived in 'America' they found it teeming with life, civilizations that hadn't been seen before by them. They also found plenty of valuable resources and fertile land. So what did they do? Same thing they did in Africa. They devised a way to steal it. First they genocided the natives.
Then they laid down their boats with gold. Then they enslaved those who survived. Do you really think they brought 20 million people from Africa to the Americas? That's completely stupid. Where are all the boats they would've had to use? How could they clean up after people who were packed like sardines? Shit, piss, vomit, for 1-3 months?!? In the 1600s to 1800s? Wooden boats relying on wind power?? Do you know how stormy the Atlantic is?? Those slaves would be turned into puree just from hitting their heads on the boards above them. Its impossible and impractical.
The truth is the 'slaves' were already here. They already had societies and 'countries' and lifestyles. They were black, 'Siberian' and a whole mix. Africans had sailed from Africa to Brazil centuries before Columbus did.
See, the reason why you believe this is the same reason that TPTB get away with all they do: you are all RETARDED. Seriously. White people live retarded lives. They think they're smarter then everyone, and yet they get all their information from people who don't have their best interests at heart. If you think I'm just an 'afro-centrist' spouting nonsense, here, let me prove it to you. White people for at least a decade, and probably still to this day defend the Iraq and Afghan wars.
Despite the fact that thousands of their own were killed, tens of thousands were wounded and left shells of men, and nothing improved for them in their daily life. If you were to observe someone who defended his wife's rapist, you would correctly call him AN IDIOT. White people defend their 'masters' who routinely abuse them and the native peoples of the rest of the world. They don't care about destroying forests, ruining lives, forced poverty, sexual abuse of women due to these changes which unbalance the natural scale of societies, etc.
If you see someone running through a store with reckless abandon destroying everything with no sense of value, you would call them wanton retards. And yet you cannot see that for 500 years YOU HAVE BEEN the wanton retards. You are blind because you are not as smart as you think you are, far from it. You can't see the hypocrisy of whining about 'refugees' and illegal immigration. BITCH YOUR WHOLE FAMILY WERE ILLEGAL IMMIGRANTS!!! YOUR ANCESTORS RAPED AND MURDERED THE NATIVE PEOPLE AND STOLE THEIR LAND! How can you even think to complain about 'illegal immigration'? You are like children, unable to see the consequences of your actions. You only care about yourselves, and barely that. You are truly a race of demons with no heart or spirituality.
More things to run thru your thought process!!
THE TRANSATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE WAS A LIE, AND THEY KNEW IT!!!
Posted by DONTE CHASE BRIDGES on SEPTEMBER 18, 2018
By: Donte Chase Bridges
4 REASONS WHY BLACK PEOPLE WERE HERE BEFORE SLAVERY.
There has been mis-education about the original people of North and South America for some time. Some people believe that the first Native Americans were Mongolian, which migrated to the Americas by way of the Bering Strait. Others believe Christopher Columbus encountered a pale skinned, long haired Native American on the shores of Hispaniola, which is taught in history books across the U.S. In this article, we will take an in-depth look at why the facts taught in our history books were completely wrong. Also, we will list the top 4 reasons why African Americans were in North, Central, and South America before slavery.
Melville Herskovits made up the Out of Africa Theory, which was a Lie.
Melville Herskovits, a European anthropologist, was one of the originators of the “Out of Africa Theory.” Herskovits never had any historical, archaeological, or anthropological proof that Black People of the Americas ever derived from West and North Africa. Consequently, Herskovits crafted the theory that Blacks arrived in America from the transatlantic slave trade, which allegedly brought in more than 10 million African Slaves. According to the National Archives of Spain and Smithsonian Records, there was no evidence to prove 70 thousand ships with Black Africans ever sailed to the Americas. Melville carried out the teachings of his mentor Franz Boaz, to make the Original Copper Color Races of The Americas inferior, and the European presence superior. Before this time, Blacks coming from Africa through the Transatlantic Slave Trade story never existed. As a result, Melville’s work has been fragmented and used as propaganda by writers like Harold Courlander and Alex Haley, which further perpetuated the myth of the Transatlantic Slave Trade through the hit movie “Roots.”
The Oldest Native American Tribe were Black.
Although we were taught in school the oldest people on earth derived from North Central Africa, It it has been Disputed and proven that the oldest tribe known to man is Washitaw Tribe of North, Central, and South America. According to “Return of the Ancient Ones,” the dark skinned Washitaw originated in the Americas over a hundred thousand years ago. The Washitaw ( Ouachita) territories spanned over 30 million Acres and stretch from the Gulf of Mexico well into Canada. In 1947 the United Nations Summer Conference establish the Ouachita Tribe as the oldest indigenous people found on earth.
The oldest pyramids found on Earth are found in North & South America.
Although it is believed that the oldest pyramids on Earth is found in Northwest Africa, evidence proves that there are pyramids found in Louisiana, (Ouachita Mound pyramids) Brazil, (pyramid of the Sun) and along the Mississippi River (Cahokia Mounds pyramids) predate the Egyptian Pyramids by 1000’s years. The pyramids were used for a number of task which included: Advanced storage systems, ancient electrical factories, Mounds for homes, and religious temples.
West African Sultans came to America before Christopher Columbus.
The popular story is that Christopher Columbus discovered America by accidentally navigating through the Atlantic Ocean and ending up in Hispaniola, or what we now know as Haiti and the Dominican Republic. The truth is there were many explorations that predate Christopher Columbus by 200 years. According to “The Hiddens Ones” Mansa Abu bakr ll, Sultan of the Mali Empire, wanted to explore the Atlantic Ocean and the lands that were talked about through through oral tradition. The Sultan then gave up his kingship to his brother Mansa Musa, (the richest man ever) assembled a fleet of ships, and sailed through the Atlantic oceans, to the land of MU, or what we now know as the Americas.
There many archaeological as well as historical references that prove that blacks were indigenous to the Americas. These are only a few of the facts that show African Americans where in the Americas before slavery. I believe it is time for the world to have a objective understanding of history so we can better understand who we are as a people, as well as a continent.
THE TRANSATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE WAS A LIE, AND THEY KNEW IT!!!
Posted by DONTE CHASE BRIDGES on SEPTEMBER 18, 2018
By: Donte Chase Bridges
4 REASONS WHY BLACK PEOPLE WERE HERE BEFORE SLAVERY.
There has been mis-education about the original people of North and South America for some time. Some people believe that the first Native Americans were Mongolian, which migrated to the Americas by way of the Bering Strait. Others believe Christopher Columbus encountered a pale skinned, long haired Native American on the shores of Hispaniola, which is taught in history books across the U.S. In this article, we will take an in-depth look at why the facts taught in our history books were completely wrong. Also, we will list the top 4 reasons why African Americans were in North, Central, and South America before slavery.
Melville Herskovits made up the Out of Africa Theory, which was a Lie.
Melville Herskovits, a European anthropologist, was one of the originators of the “Out of Africa Theory.” Herskovits never had any historical, archaeological, or anthropological proof that Black People of the Americas ever derived from West and North Africa. Consequently, Herskovits crafted the theory that Blacks arrived in America from the transatlantic slave trade, which allegedly brought in more than 10 million African Slaves. According to the National Archives of Spain and Smithsonian Records, there was no evidence to prove 70 thousand ships with Black Africans ever sailed to the Americas. Melville carried out the teachings of his mentor Franz Boaz, to make the Original Copper Color Races of The Americas inferior, and the European presence superior. Before this time, Blacks coming from Africa through the Transatlantic Slave Trade story never existed. As a result, Melville’s work has been fragmented and used as propaganda by writers like Harold Courlander and Alex Haley, which further perpetuated the myth of the Transatlantic Slave Trade through the hit movie “Roots.”
The Oldest Native American Tribe were Black.
Although we were taught in school the oldest people on earth derived from North Central Africa, It it has been Disputed and proven that the oldest tribe known to man is Washitaw Tribe of North, Central, and South America. According to “Return of the Ancient Ones,” the dark skinned Washitaw originated in the Americas over a hundred thousand years ago. The Washitaw ( Ouachita) territories spanned over 30 million Acres and stretch from the Gulf of Mexico well into Canada. In 1947 the United Nations Summer Conference establish the Ouachita Tribe as the oldest indigenous people found on earth.
The oldest pyramids found on Earth are found in North & South America.
Although it is believed that the oldest pyramids on Earth is found in Northwest Africa, evidence proves that there are pyramids found in Louisiana, (Ouachita Mound pyramids) Brazil, (pyramid of the Sun) and along the Mississippi River (Cahokia Mounds pyramids) predate the Egyptian Pyramids by 1000’s years. The pyramids were used for a number of task which included: Advanced storage systems, ancient electrical factories, Mounds for homes, and religious temples.
West African Sultans came to America before Christopher Columbus.
The popular story is that Christopher Columbus discovered America by accidentally navigating through the Atlantic Ocean and ending up in Hispaniola, or what we now know as Haiti and the Dominican Republic. The truth is there were many explorations that predate Christopher Columbus by 200 years. According to “The Hiddens Ones” Mansa Abu bakr ll, Sultan of the Mali Empire, wanted to explore the Atlantic Ocean and the lands that were talked about through through oral tradition. The Sultan then gave up his kingship to his brother Mansa Musa, (the richest man ever) assembled a fleet of ships, and sailed through the Atlantic oceans, to the land of MU, or what we now know as the Americas.
There many archaeological as well as historical references that prove that blacks were indigenous to the Americas. These are only a few of the facts that show African Americans where in the Americas before slavery. I believe it is time for the world to have a objective understanding of history so we can better understand who we are as a people, as well as a continent.
keep it up, brotha @roots69 !
this thread is platinum level and must stay on the front page. Our people have set up structures all over the planet and don’t get credit for it. I’ve been using some of this info to wake up the sheep that keep trotting out the narratives as facts this month and they can’t believe it.
the whites even know our history better than most of us and that is sad
this thread is platinum level and must stay on the front page. Our people have set up structures all over the planet and don’t get credit for it. I’ve been using some of this info to wake up the sheep that keep trotting out the narratives as facts this month and they can’t believe it.
the whites even know our history better than most of us and that is sad
keep it up, brotha @roots69 !
this thread is platinum level and must stay on the front page. Our people have set up structures all over the planet and don’t get credit for it. I’ve been using some of this info to wake up the sheep that keep trotting out the narratives as facts this month and they can’t believe it.
the whites even know our history better than most of us and that is sad
Thanks bruh.. Im going to keep droppin info in this thread to try and snap folks outta the dream state!! Anyway, Im glad your using sum of the info. Im going to put sum info up on all the copper color people that were getting shipped outta this country!! What we were being told was happening in reverse, its pretty damn sad!!
I know why.
Correct me if Im wrong, but MLK & Malcolm X stated we were here long before the colonist arrived!! I dont understand it!! We wont believe them but we will believe a fake show that was put on television and these lying ass indoctrination(schools) centers or these gatekeepers that line up on the tv, movies, music or sports stars!!
A very interesting read.. Indians didnt show up on government counts until around the end of slavery!!! So, take a guess whos ancestors this effected??
Indian Treaties and the Removal Act of 1830
The U.S. Government used treaties as one means to displace Indians from their tribal lands, a mechanism that was strengthened with the Removal Act of 1830. In cases where this failed, the government sometimes violated both treaties and Supreme Court rulings to facilitate the spread of European Americans westward across the continent.
As the 19th century began, land-hungry Americans poured into the backcountry of the coastal South and began moving toward and into what would later become the states of Alabama and Mississippi. Since Indian tribes living there appeared to be the main obstacle to westward expansion, white settlers petitioned the federal government to remove them. Although Presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe argued that the Indian tribes in the Southeast should exchange their land for lands west of the Mississippi River, they did not take steps to make this happen. Indeed, the first major transfer of land occurred only as the result of war.
In 1814, Major General Andrew Jackson led an expedition against the Creek Indians climaxing in the Battle of Horse Shoe Bend (in present day Alabama near the Georgia border), where Jackson’s force soundly defeated the Creeks and destroyed their military power. He then forced upon the Indians a treaty whereby they surrendered to the United States over twenty-million acres of their traditional land—about one-half of present day Alabama and one-fifth of Georgia. Over the next decade, Jackson led the way in the Indian removal campaign, helping to negotiate nine of the eleven major treaties to remove Indians.
Under this kind of pressure, Native American tribes—specifically the Creek, Cherokee, Chickasaw, and Choctaw—realized that they could not defeat the Americans in war. The appetite of the settlers for land would not abate, so the Indians adopted a strategy of appeasement. They hoped that if they gave up a good deal of their land, they could keep at least some a part of it. The Seminole tribe in Florida resisted, in the Second Seminole War (1835–1842) and the Third Seminole War (1855–1858), however, neither appeasement nor resistance worked.
From a legal standpoint, the United States Constitution empowered Congress to "regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes.” In early treaties negotiated between the federal government and the Indian tribes, the latter typically acknowledged themselves “to be under the protection of the United States of America, and of no other sovereign whosoever.” When Andrew Jackson became president (1829–1837), he decided to build a systematic approach to Indian removal on the basis of these legal precedents.
To achieve his purpose, Jackson encouraged Congress to adopt the Removal Act of 1830. The Act established a process whereby the President could grant land west of the Mississippi River to Indian tribes that agreed to give up their homelands. As incentives, the law allowed the Indians financial and material assistance to travel to their new locations and start new lives and guaranteed that the Indians would live on their new property under the protection of the United States Government forever. With the Act in place, Jackson and his followers were free to persuade, bribe, and threaten tribes into signing removal treaties and leaving the Southeast.
In general terms, Jackson’s government succeeded. By the end of his presidency, he had signed into law almost seventy removal treaties, the result of which was to move nearly 50,000 eastern Indians to Indian Territory—defined as the region belonging to the United States west of the Mississippi River but excluding the states of Missouri and Iowa as well as the Territory of Arkansas—and open millions of acres of rich land east of the Mississippi to white settlers. Despite the vastness of the Indian Territory, the government intended that the Indians’ destination would be a more confined area--what later became eastern Oklahoma.
The Cherokee Nation resisted, however, challenging in court the Georgia laws that restricted their freedoms on tribal lands. In his 1831 ruling on Cherokee Nation v. the State of Georgia, Chief Justice John Marshall declared that “the Indian territory is admitted to compose a part of the United States,” and affirmed that the tribes were “domestic dependent nations” and “their relation to the United States resembles that of a ward to his guardian.” However, the following year the Supreme Court reversed itself and ruled that Indian tribes were indeed sovereign and immune from Georgia laws. President Jackson nonetheless refused to heed the Court's decision. He obtained the signature of a Cherokee chief agreeing to relocation in the Treaty of New Echota, which Congress ratified against the protests of Daniel Webster and Henry Clay in 1835. The Cherokee signing party represented only a faction of the Cherokee, and the majority followed Principal Chief John Ross in a desperate attempt to hold onto their land. In response, Jackson ordered military action in 1838. Under the guns of federal troops and Georgia state militia, the Cherokee tribe made their trek to the dry plains across the Mississippi. The best evidence indicates that between three and four thousand out of the fifteen to sixteen thousand Cherokees died en route from the brutal conditions of the "Trail of Tears."
With the exception of a small number of Seminoles still resisting removal in Florida, by the 1840s, from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, no Indian tribes resided in the American South. Through a combination of coerced treaties and the contravention of treaties and judicial determination, the United States Government succeeded in paving the way for the westward expansion and the incorporation of new territories as part of the United States.
Indian Treaties and the Removal Act of 1830
The U.S. Government used treaties as one means to displace Indians from their tribal lands, a mechanism that was strengthened with the Removal Act of 1830. In cases where this failed, the government sometimes violated both treaties and Supreme Court rulings to facilitate the spread of European Americans westward across the continent.
As the 19th century began, land-hungry Americans poured into the backcountry of the coastal South and began moving toward and into what would later become the states of Alabama and Mississippi. Since Indian tribes living there appeared to be the main obstacle to westward expansion, white settlers petitioned the federal government to remove them. Although Presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe argued that the Indian tribes in the Southeast should exchange their land for lands west of the Mississippi River, they did not take steps to make this happen. Indeed, the first major transfer of land occurred only as the result of war.
In 1814, Major General Andrew Jackson led an expedition against the Creek Indians climaxing in the Battle of Horse Shoe Bend (in present day Alabama near the Georgia border), where Jackson’s force soundly defeated the Creeks and destroyed their military power. He then forced upon the Indians a treaty whereby they surrendered to the United States over twenty-million acres of their traditional land—about one-half of present day Alabama and one-fifth of Georgia. Over the next decade, Jackson led the way in the Indian removal campaign, helping to negotiate nine of the eleven major treaties to remove Indians.
Under this kind of pressure, Native American tribes—specifically the Creek, Cherokee, Chickasaw, and Choctaw—realized that they could not defeat the Americans in war. The appetite of the settlers for land would not abate, so the Indians adopted a strategy of appeasement. They hoped that if they gave up a good deal of their land, they could keep at least some a part of it. The Seminole tribe in Florida resisted, in the Second Seminole War (1835–1842) and the Third Seminole War (1855–1858), however, neither appeasement nor resistance worked.
From a legal standpoint, the United States Constitution empowered Congress to "regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes.” In early treaties negotiated between the federal government and the Indian tribes, the latter typically acknowledged themselves “to be under the protection of the United States of America, and of no other sovereign whosoever.” When Andrew Jackson became president (1829–1837), he decided to build a systematic approach to Indian removal on the basis of these legal precedents.
To achieve his purpose, Jackson encouraged Congress to adopt the Removal Act of 1830. The Act established a process whereby the President could grant land west of the Mississippi River to Indian tribes that agreed to give up their homelands. As incentives, the law allowed the Indians financial and material assistance to travel to their new locations and start new lives and guaranteed that the Indians would live on their new property under the protection of the United States Government forever. With the Act in place, Jackson and his followers were free to persuade, bribe, and threaten tribes into signing removal treaties and leaving the Southeast.
In general terms, Jackson’s government succeeded. By the end of his presidency, he had signed into law almost seventy removal treaties, the result of which was to move nearly 50,000 eastern Indians to Indian Territory—defined as the region belonging to the United States west of the Mississippi River but excluding the states of Missouri and Iowa as well as the Territory of Arkansas—and open millions of acres of rich land east of the Mississippi to white settlers. Despite the vastness of the Indian Territory, the government intended that the Indians’ destination would be a more confined area--what later became eastern Oklahoma.
The Cherokee Nation resisted, however, challenging in court the Georgia laws that restricted their freedoms on tribal lands. In his 1831 ruling on Cherokee Nation v. the State of Georgia, Chief Justice John Marshall declared that “the Indian territory is admitted to compose a part of the United States,” and affirmed that the tribes were “domestic dependent nations” and “their relation to the United States resembles that of a ward to his guardian.” However, the following year the Supreme Court reversed itself and ruled that Indian tribes were indeed sovereign and immune from Georgia laws. President Jackson nonetheless refused to heed the Court's decision. He obtained the signature of a Cherokee chief agreeing to relocation in the Treaty of New Echota, which Congress ratified against the protests of Daniel Webster and Henry Clay in 1835. The Cherokee signing party represented only a faction of the Cherokee, and the majority followed Principal Chief John Ross in a desperate attempt to hold onto their land. In response, Jackson ordered military action in 1838. Under the guns of federal troops and Georgia state militia, the Cherokee tribe made their trek to the dry plains across the Mississippi. The best evidence indicates that between three and four thousand out of the fifteen to sixteen thousand Cherokees died en route from the brutal conditions of the "Trail of Tears."
With the exception of a small number of Seminoles still resisting removal in Florida, by the 1840s, from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, no Indian tribes resided in the American South. Through a combination of coerced treaties and the contravention of treaties and judicial determination, the United States Government succeeded in paving the way for the westward expansion and the incorporation of new territories as part of the United States.